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This fixes #856. Instead of the weakref trick, the internals structure
holds an unordered_map from PyObject* to a vector of references. To
avoid the cost of the unordered_map lookup for objects that don't have
any keep_alive patients, a flag is added to each instance to indicate
whether there is anything to do.

Using `std::type_info::operator==` fails under libc++ because the .so
is loaded with RTLD_LOCAL.  libc++ considers types under such .sos
distinct, and so comparing typeid() values directly isn't going to work.

This adds a custom hasher and equality class for the type lookup maps
when not under stdlibc++, and adds a `detail::same_type` function to
perform the equality test.  It also converts a few pointer arguments to
const lvalue references, particularly since doing the pointer
comparison wasn't technically valid to being with (though in practice,
appeared to work everywhere).

This fixes #912.

Fixes a race condition when multiple threads try to acquire the GIL
before `detail::internals` have been initialized. `gil_scoped_release`
is now tasked with initializing `internals` (guaranteed single-threaded)
to ensure the safety of subsequent `acquire` calls from multiple threads.

Fixes the issue as described in the comments of commit e27ea47c. This
just adds `enable_if_t<std::is_move_constructible<T>::value>` to
`make_move_constructor`. The change fixes MSVC and is harmless with
other compilers.

CLion slows to a crawl when evaluating the intricate `PYBIND11_NUMPY_DTYPE`
macro. This commit replaces the macro cascade with a simple `(void)0`
to ease IDE evaluation.

This allows named capsules to be constructed with `py::capsule`.

This commit allows multiple inheritance of pybind11 classes from
Python, e.g.

    class MyType(Base1, Base2):
        def __init__(self):
            Base1.__init__(self)
            Base2.__init__(self)

where Base1 and Base2 are pybind11-exported classes.

This requires collapsing the various builtin base objects
(pybind11_object_56, ...) introduced in 2.1 into a single
pybind11_object of a fixed size; this fixed size object allocates enough
space to contain either a simple object (one base class & small* holder
instance), or a pointer to a new allocation that can contain an
arbitrary number of base classes and holders, with holder size
unrestricted.

* "small" here means having a sizeof() of at most 2 pointers, which is
enough to fit unique_ptr (sizeof is 1 ptr) and shared_ptr (sizeof is 2
ptrs).

To minimize the performance impact, this repurposes
`internals::registered_types_py` to store a vector of pybind-registered
base types.  For direct-use pybind types (e.g. the `PyA` for a C++ `A`)
this is simply storing the same thing as before, but now in a vector;
for Python-side inherited types, the map lets us avoid having to do a
base class traversal as long as we've seen the class before.  The
change to vector is needed for multiple inheritance: Python types
inheriting from multiple registered bases have one entry per base.

Fixes #896.

From Python docs: "Once an iterator’s `__next__()` method raises
`StopIteration`, it must continue to do so on subsequent calls.
Implementations that do not obey this property are deemed broken."

Passing utf8 encoded strings from python to a C++ function taking a
std::string was broken.  The previous version was trying to call
'PyUnicode_FromObject' on this data, which failed to convert the string
to unicode with the default ascii codec. Also this incurs an unnecessary
conversion to unicode for data this is immediately converted back to
utf8.

Fix by treating python 2 strings the same python 3 bytes objects, and just
copying over the data if possible.

libc++ 3.8 (and possibly others--including the derived version on OS X),
doesn't define the macro, but does support std::experimental::optional.
This removes the extra macro check and just assumes the header existing
is enough, which is what we do for <optional> and <variant>.

MSVC 2015 Update 3 and 2017 can handle enough expression SFINAE
to make this work now.

Py_Finalize could potentially invoke code that calls `get_internals()`,
which could create a new internals object if one didn't exist.
`finalize_interpreter()` didn't catch this because it only used the
pre-finalize interpreter pointer status; if this happens, it results in
the internals pointer not being properly destroyed with the interpreter,
which leaks, and also causes a `get_internals()` under a future
interpreter to return an internals object that is wrong in various ways.

Fixes #887.

`accessor` currently relies on an implicit default copy constructor, but that is deprecated in C++11 when a copy assignment operator is present and can, in some cases, raise deprecation warnings (see #888).  This commit explicitly specifies the default copy constructor and also adds a default move constructor.

This reimplements the std::reference_wrapper<T> caster to be a shell
around the underlying T caster (rather than assuming T is a generic
type), which lets it work for things like `std::reference_wrapper<int>`
or anything else custom type caster with a lvalue cast operator.

This also makes it properly fail when None is provided, just as an
ordinary lvalue reference argument would similarly fail.

This also adds a static assert to test that T has an appropriate type
caster.  It triggers for casters like `std::pair`, which have
return-by-value cast operators.  (In theory this could be supported by
storing a local temporary for such types, but that's beyond the scope
of this PR).

This also replaces `automatic` or `take_ownership` return value policies
with `automatic_reference` as taking ownership of a reference inside a
reference_wrapper is not valid.

This commit also adds `doc()` to `object_api` as a shortcut for the
`attr("__doc__")` accessor.

The module macro changes from:
```c++
PYBIND11_PLUGIN(example) {
    pybind11::module m("example", "pybind11 example plugin");
    m.def("add", [](int a, int b) { return a + b; });
    return m.ptr();
}
```

to:

```c++
PYBIND11_MODULE(example, m) {
    m.doc() = "pybind11 example plugin";
    m.def("add", [](int a, int b) { return a + b; });
}
```

Using the old macro results in a deprecation warning. The warning
actually points to the `pybind11_init` function (since attributes
don't bind to macros), but the message should be quite clear:
"PYBIND11_PLUGIN is deprecated, use PYBIND11_MODULE".

* Added template constructors to buffer_info that can deduce the item size, format string, and number of dimensions from the pointer type and the shape container

* Implemented actual buffer_info constructor as private delegate constructor taking rvalue reference as a workaround for the evaluation order move problem on GCC 4.8

Fixes #878.

Now that #851 has removed all multiple uses of a caster, it can just use
the default-constructed value with needing a reset. This fixes two
issues:

1. With std::experimental::optional (at least under GCC 5.4), the `= {}`
would construct an instance of the optional type and then move-assign
it, which fails if the value type isn't move-assignable.

2. With older versions of Boost, the `= {}` could fail because it is
ambiguous, allowing construction of either `boost::none` or the value
type.

The stl_bind.h wrapper for `Vector.insert` neglected to do a bounds
check.

The "extend" method for vectors defined in stl_bind.h used `reserve` to
allocate space for the extra growth. While this can sometimes make a
constant-factor improvement in performance, it can also cause
construction of a vector by repeated extension to take quadratic rather
than linear time, as memory is reallocated in small increments rather
than on an exponential schedule. For example, this Python code would
take time proportional to the square of the trip count:

```python
a = VectorInt([1, 2, 3])
b = VectorInt()
for i in range(100000):
    b.extend(a)
```

This commit removes the `reserve` call. The alternative would be to try
to add some smarter heuristics, but the standard library may well have
its own heuristics (the iterators are random access iterators, so it can
easily determine the number of items being added) and trying to add more
heuristics on top of that seems like a bad idea.

This extends py::vectorize to automatically pass through
non-vectorizable arguments.  This removes the need for the documented
"explicitly exclude an argument" workaround.

Vectorization now applies to arithmetic, std::complex, and POD types,
passed as plain value or by const lvalue reference (previously only
pass-by-value types were supported).  Non-const lvalue references and
any other types are passed through as-is.

Functions with rvalue reference arguments (whether vectorizable or not)
are explicitly prohibited: an rvalue reference is inherently not
something that can be passed multiple times and is thus unsuitable to
being in a vectorized function.

The vectorize returned value is also now more sensitive to inputs:
previously it would return by value when all inputs are of size 1; this
is now amended to having all inputs of size 1 *and* 0 dimensions.  Thus
if you pass in, for example, [[1]], you get back a 1x1, 2D array, while
previously you got back just the resulting single value.

Vectorization of member function specializations is now also supported
via `py::vectorize(&Class::method)`; this required passthrough support
for the initial object pointer on the wrapping function pointer.

Currently if you construct an `array_t<T, array::f_style>` with a shape
but not strides you get a C-style array; the only way to get F-style
strides was to calculate the strides manually.  This commit fixes that
by adding logic to use f_style strides when the flag is set.

This also simplifies the existing c_style stride logic.

Adds `remove_reference_t` and converts various `typename
std::remove_reference<...>::type` to using it.

This allows calling of functions (typically void) over a parameter
pack, replacing usage such as:

    bool unused[] = { (voidfunc(param_pack_arg), false)..., false };
    (void) unused;

with a much cleaner:

    PYBIND11_EXPAND_SIDE_EFFECTS(voidfunc(param_pack_arg));

This attribute lets you disable (or explicitly enable) passing None to
an argument that otherwise would allow it by accepting
a value by raw pointer or shared_ptr.

This commit allows type_casters to allow their local values to be moved
away, rather than copied, when the type caster instance itself is an rvalue.

This only applies (automatically) to type casters using
PYBIND11_TYPE_CASTER; the generic type type casters don't own their own
pointer, and various value casters (e.g. std::string, std::pair,
arithmetic types) already cast to an rvalue (i.e. they return by value).

This updates various calling code to attempt to get a movable value
whenever the value is itself coming from a type caster about to be
destroyed: for example, when constructing an std::pair or various stl.h
containers.  For types that don't support value moving, the cast_op
falls back to an lvalue cast.

There wasn't an obvious place to add the tests, so I added them to
test_copy_move_policies, but also renamed it to drop the _policies as it
now tests more than just policies.

Closes #857, by adding overloads to def_buffer that match pointers to
member functions and wrap them in lambdas.

This changes javadoc-style documenting comments from:

    /** Text starts here
     * and continues here
     */

to:

    /**
     * Test starts here
     * and continues here
     */

which looks a little better, and also matches the javadoc-recommended
way of writing documenting comments.

Using a dynamic_cast instead of a static_cast is needed to safely cast
from a base to a derived type.  The previous static_pointer_cast isn't
safe, however, when downcasting (and fails to compile when downcasting
with virtual inheritance).

Switching this to always use a dynamic_pointer_cast shouldn't incur any
additional overhead when a static_pointer_cast is safe (i.e. when
upcasting, or self-casting): compilers don't need RTTI checks in those
cases.

Python 2 requires both `__div__` and `__truediv__` (and variants) for
compatibility with both regular Python 2 and Python 2 under `from
__future__ import division`.  Without both, division fails in one or the
other case.

- realign \ at end of macro lines
- use 'using A = B;' rather than 'typedef B A;'
- use conditional_t

The Python method for /= was set as `__idiv__`, which should be
`__itruediv__` under Python 3.

This wasn't totally broken in that without it defined, Python constructs
a new object by calling __truediv__.  The operator tests, however,
didn't actually test the /= operator: when I added it, I saw an extra
construction, leading to the problem.  This commit also includes tests
for the previously untested *= operator, and adds some element-wise
vector multiplication and division operators.

The numpy strides/sizes/etc. are signed now, but the static_assert
didn't get updated to match.

Under gcc, the `static internals *internals_ptr` is shared across .so's,
which breaks for obvious reasons.

This commit fixes it by moving the static pointer declaration into a
pybind-version-templated function.

Fixes #852.

Missing conformability check was causing Eigen to create a 0x0 matrix
with an error in debug mode and silent corruption in release mode.