us_foreign_policy.txt

What is the structure of the United Nations Security Council?<n>A.5 permanent members with veto power, 10 rotating members with no veto power<n>B.5 permanent members and 10 rotating members, all with veto power<n>C.10 permanent members with veto power, and 5 rotating members without veto power<n>D.15 permanent members with veto power[SEP]A
What was the significance of the Gulf of Tonkin resolution?<n>A.It allowed the US to intensify its involvement in Vietnam<n>B.It illustrated the influence of public opinion on US foreign policy<n>C.It enhanced Congressional control over the Vietnam War<n>D.It curtailed US involvement in Vietnam[SEP]A
Which is not a nonstate actor that poses a threat to the United States?<n>A.Terrorists<n>B.Organized crime<n>C.Drug traffickers<n>D.China[SEP]D
Who was the first American president to visit communist China?<n>A.Richard Nixon<n>B.George H. W. Bush<n>C.Jimmy Carter<n>D.Ronald Reagan[SEP]A
The Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty was the first accord<n>A.on nuclear weapons signed between the United States and the Soviet Union.<n>B.cutting conventional arms in Europe.<n>C.to be rejected by the U.S. Senate.<n>D.mandating the elimination of many long-range nuclear missiles.[SEP]D
What were the implications of the Cold War for American exceptionalism?<n>A.It ended the influence of American exceptionalism entirely<n>B.Exceptionalism was enhanced by America's status as the 'leader of the free world'<n>C.The extension of American power globally challenged core assumptions of exceptionalism<n>D.Both b and c[SEP]D
Why did Franklin D. Roosevelt initially favour an 'isolationist' stance on the part of the US during the 1930s?<n>A.He believed that internal reform rather than international negotiation was the key to economic regeneration of the US<n>B.He believed that German domination of Europe would be in US interests<n>C.He always favoured isolationism<n>D.All of the above[SEP]A
What was the 'New Populism'?<n>A.A strand of neo-isolationist sentiment<n>B.A strand of internationalist sentiment<n>C.An expression of American cultural superiority<n>D.Increased incorporation of public opinion in foreign policy making[SEP]A
How did World War I shift economic power from Europe to the United States?<n>A.The war reduced European population levels below that of the United States<n>B.The United States seized German resources after the war<n>C.European countries paid the United States for assistance<n>D.The United States became a creditor country and financial centre, with European war spending boosting the US economy[SEP]D
In American government, the power to declare war rests with<n>A.the president of the United States.<n>B.the secretary of defense.<n>C.the chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff.<n>D.Congress.[SEP]D
How did the Cold War context shape US perceptions of the Third World?<n>A.The US ignored the Third World<n>B.Local developments were viewed through a geopolitical lens<n>C.The US unreservedly supported decolonization<n>D.None of the above[SEP]B
What was unique about the NATO intervention in Kosovo?<n>A.It was the first time the US became involved in the Balkans<n>B.It was the first time NATO used military force<n>C.It was the first war won by airpower alone<n>D.It was the first war to employ 'smart weapons'[SEP]C
What, according to Systemic theories, is the primary determinant of a state's foreign policy?<n>A.The character of a state's leader<n>B.The distribution of power in the international system<n>C.The distribution of power within a state's governmental system<n>D.A state's political ideology[SEP]B
Why is there so much uncertainty over which states have nuclear weapons?<n>A.Leaders have incentives to lie<n>B.If leaders revealed their programs, they would be more likely to be attacked<n>C.Leaders will not always grant foreign monitors access to their nuclear programs<n>D.ALL of the above[SEP]D
Within American politics, the power to accord official recognition to other countries belongs to<n>A.the Senate.<n>B.the president.<n>C.the Secretary of State.<n>D.the chairman of the Joint Chiefs.[SEP]B
What did the Moscow Treaty on Strategic Offensive Reductions do?<n>A.Required the United States and Russia to demobilize their armies<n>B.Required the United States and Russia to dismantle a significant number of their nuclear weapons<n>C.Prohibited the acquisition of new military bases<n>D.Prohibited short-range nuclear weapons[SEP]B
What were the 'open-door notes'?<n>A.An American declaration that the US was always open to Chinese immigration<n>B.An American proclamation that China should be divided up between the US, Japan and the European empires<n>C.An American proclamation that China should be open to US trade and missionaries<n>D.An American declaration of support for Chinese economic protectionism[SEP]C
International trade will almost always benefit both countries, so why do countries try to protect their own firms from exposure to the world market?<n>A.Irrationality on the part of the leadership<n>B.Costs of free trade are concentrated, but benefits are dispersed<n>C.Regime type<n>D.International conflict prevents trade[SEP]B
Why did George H.W. Bush allow Saddam Hussein to remain in power after the Gulf War of 1991?<n>A.Lack of US firepower<n>B.Concern over oil supplies<n>C.Limited UN mandate and fear of a protracted conflict<n>D.Difficult terrain and fear of civilian casualties[SEP]C
Why do Liberal Internationalists argue that international institutions are important to US grand strategy?<n>A.They allow the US to withdraw from the international arena<n>B.They serve American interests<n>C.The US is incapable of acting alone<n>D.None of the above[SEP]B
What was the significance of the Truman Doctrine?<n>A.It indicated the special place of Greece and Turkey in American interests<n>B.It was Truman's first statement on European affairs<n>C.It indicated US reluctance to get involved in incidents outside of its immediate sphere of influence<n>D.It indicated that the US would now view all local revolts through a geopolitical lens[SEP]D
What tend to be the effects of oil and other natural resource trade on developing states?<n>A.It democratizes countries<n>B.It has no real effect<n>C.It encourages stability of the regime<n>D.It changes the nature of the investor[SEP]C
The dominant course for foreign policy throughout most of American history can be categorized as<n>A.containment.<n>B.neoconservatism.<n>C.isolationism.<n>D.protectionism.[SEP]C
What led Britain to impose new taxes on their American colonies?<n>A.To increase the wealth of King George III<n>B.The growing costs of war with France<n>C.Anger at America's growing prosperity<n>D.Pressure from rich merchants[SEP]B
Who said "Globalization is not something we can hold off or turn off. It is the economic equivalent of a force of nature-like wind or water"?<n>A.Ronald Reagan<n>B.George Soros<n>C.Bill Clinton<n>D.George W. Bush[SEP]C
The idea that war is "the continuation of politics by other means" helps to capture<n>A.diplomacy is the quietest instrument of influence in global politics.<n>B.the way political parties fight with each other.<n>C.the idea that governments use their military to help pursue policy goals.<n>D.the way Democrats and Republicans differ over the war in Iraq.[SEP]C
What are the key elements of the Liberal approach to US foreign policy?<n>A.Promotion of Democracy, free-trade and international institutions<n>B.Alliances, diplomacy and protectionism<n>C.The balance of power, self-sufficiency and prudence<n>D.None of the above[SEP]A
What was the key difference between US expansion pre- and post- 1865?<n>A.US expansion was based on territory rather than markets post-1865<n>B.US expansion was based on markets rather than territory post-1865<n>C.US expansion was limited to Latin America post-1865<n>D.US expansion ended after 1865[SEP]B
What case did President Eisenhower make against the 'military-industrial complex' in his farewell speech?<n>A.That the capitalist search for profits was the leading cause of armed conflict<n>B.That the United States no longer needed to be militarily strong<n>C.That military spending gave the arms industry unwarranted influence on politics and government<n>D.That private companies would undermine the role of the Armed Forces[SEP]C
Within the United Nations, real power is located in<n>A.the Security Council.<n>B.the Chamber of Deputies.<n>C.the Council of Ministers.<n>D.the Secretariat.[SEP]A
In general, how do conservatives and liberals differ when it comes to defense spending?<n>A.Conservatives are skeptical of increases in defense spending; liberals advocate increases in defense spending.<n>B.Conservatives favor social spending over defense spending; liberals favor defense spending over social spending.<n>C.Conservatives advocate increases in defense spending; liberals are generally skeptical of increases in defense spending.<n>D.Conservatives emphasize strong economies; liberals emphasize strong military readiness.[SEP]C
Intergovernmental organizations SELDOM do which of the following?<n>A.Provide strong enforcement<n>B.Monitor parties<n>C.Provide fora for discussion<n>D.Reduce transaction costs for agreements[SEP]A
Which of the following are possible constraints on US foreign policy decision making?<n>A.Foreign policies of other states<n>B.International law<n>C.Intergovernmental organizations<n>D.All of the above[SEP]D
What is direct diplomacy?<n>A.Members of Congress negotiating directly with foreign governments<n>B.Face-to-face meetings between state leaders<n>C.The president consulting Congress on foreign policy issues<n>D.Bilateral talks that do not involve a third-party negotiator[SEP]A
What was the Clinton Administration's policy on the Russian economy?<n>A.The US inhibited the marketization of the Russian economy<n>B.The US promoted the marketization of the Russian economy<n>C.The US supported public ownership of natural resources<n>D.None, the US was only concerned with security issues[SEP]B
How many major powers are there in a multipolar system?<n>A.0<n>B.1<n>C.2<n>D.3 or more[SEP]D
Why did Americans believe that they could found a different kind of empire after 1776?<n>A.This would be an 'empire of liberty'<n>B.This empire would be multi-cultural<n>C.This type of empire would be based on expansion<n>D.This would be empire free of slavery[SEP]A
The trade-off between defense and social spending is often referred to as a choice between<n>A.bread and butter.<n>B.war and peace.<n>C.guns and butter.<n>D.bombs and books.[SEP]C
What did Charles Krauthammer mean by a 'unipolar moment' when describing the post-Cold War system?<n>A.The chance for the United States to share power with other countries in the world<n>B.An opportunity to use to collapse of the Soviet Union to extend US power<n>C.An international system that didn't face any threats<n>D.The never-ending domination of the United States[SEP]B
Which of the following considers it immoral to use force abroad to do good things (such human rights protection, democracy, etc)?<n>A.Realism<n>B.Idealism<n>C.Liberalism<n>D.None of the above[SEP]A
According to realists, what is the fundamental difference between the international system and the domestic system?<n>A.Armed conflict<n>B.Anarchy<n>C.Institutions<n>D.No common language[SEP]B
Which is NOT a reason for why intergovernmental organizations are ineffective at promoting human rights?<n>A.These organizations merely identify those states who already support human rights<n>B.They cannot get enough information about which leaders will abuse their citizens<n>C.These organizations have little ability to constrain abusive leaders<n>D.None of the above[SEP]B
Why might the 'Philadelphian System' be linked to the idea of American exceptionalism?<n>A.It encouraged greater involvement in European politics<n>B.It was designed as the antithesis of European politics<n>C.It created a large standing army<n>D.It encouraged the centralization of political power in the US[SEP]B
Which of the following are possible constraints on US foreign policy decision making?<n>A.Foreign policies of other states<n>B.International law<n>C.Intergovernmental organizations<n>D.All of the above[SEP]D
Détente, or the relaxing of tensions coupled with firm guarantees of mutual security, represented a shift in American foreign policy toward the communist world ushered in by<n>A.Richard Nixon.<n>B.Eugene McCarthy<n>C.Lyndon Johnson.<n>D.Robert Kennedy.[SEP]A
Which of these is not a component of the 'American Creed'?<n>A.Liberty<n>B.Equality<n>C.Autocracy<n>D.Individualism[SEP]C
During the early years of his administration, Reagan's foreign and defense policies emphasized<n>A.nuclear disarmament.<n>B.détente.<n>C.anticommunism.<n>D.international free trade.[SEP]C
The Vietnam War can be understood as<n>A.a war that deeply divided the United States and fostered cynicism toward the American government.<n>B.an example of the doctrine of containment, because U.S. involvement was designed to prevent the fall of South Vietnam to the communists.<n>C.an example of how even a great power may not be able to prevail against a determined enemy unless there is a clear objective and the national will to do so.<n>D.All of the above are true.[SEP]D
The departments of the executive branch that assist the president in designing and carrying out U.S. foreign policy are known as<n>A.the United Nations.<n>B.the National Security Council.<n>C.the State Department.<n>D.the National Security Agency.[SEP]C
The largest increase in peacetime defense spending in American history occurred under which president?<n>A.Jimmy Carter<n>B.Ronald Reagan<n>C.Bill Clinton<n>D.Dwight Eisenhower[SEP]B
What caused a public uproar involving the National Security Agency in 2005?<n>A.Revelations that the NSA was monitoring the communications of American citizens without obtaining warrants<n>B.A leaked memo that linked the events of September 11, 2001, with the Democratic National Committee<n>C.Revelations that the NSA had tortured prisoners at Guantanamo, Cuba<n>D.A scathing report condemning the George W. Bush administration for "building a case for the war in Iraq on a quicksand foundation"[SEP]A
What was the Marshall Plan?<n>A.A plan that provided economic assistance to rebuild Europe.<n>B.A plan to provide aid to Greece and Turkey in their stand against Soviet and Soviet-assisted threats<n>C.A plan that provided Europe with military assistance to counter the Soviet threat<n>D.The plan designed to stop communism in Asia[SEP]A
Bureaucratic politics suggests we should be worried about which of the following with regard to nuclear weapons?<n>A.Having the capability to deter the most powerful rival<n>B.Having the capability to deter smaller states<n>C.How nuclear attacks are identified and responded to; who controls the weapons<n>D.Bureaucratic politics provides no information about nuclear proliferation and use[SEP]C
According to International Institutionalists, what problems have international institutions been designed to address?<n>A.War<n>B.Anarchy<n>C.Collective action and coordination problems<n>D.All of the above[SEP]D
What was meant by the term 'New World Order'?<n>A.A new democratic internationalism led by the United States<n>B.A new balance of power between the US and China<n>C.A new global economic framework<n>D.A new era of globalization[SEP]A
The best known and perhaps most important international organization is<n>A.the United Nations.<n>B.the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO).<n>C.the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC).<n>D.the World Trade Organization (WTO).[SEP]A
What was meant by the term 'American multiplication table'?<n>A.Increase in the US population<n>B.Increase in US finances<n>C.Increase in US military capability<n>D.Increase in US international influence[SEP]A
Global and regional international trade agreements work by using which of the following mechanisms?<n>A.Reciprocity across multiple issues<n>B.Reputational concerns of the actors<n>C.Side payments for adjusting to the organization (such as the Common Agricultural Policy in the EU)<n>D.ALL of the above[SEP]D
Why did Lincoln oppose the southward expansion of the US?<n>A.It would have drained the US economically<n>B.It would have involved compromising opposition to slavery<n>C.It would have increased immigration to the US<n>D.None of the above[SEP]B
Growing tension between the United States and the Soviet Union resulted in a policy that John Foster Dulles referred to as<n>A."mutual assured destruction."<n>B."brinkmanship."<n>C."realism."<n>D."not in my backyard."[SEP]B
Why do some scholars claim that Reagan 'won the Cold War'?<n>A.Reagan's first term military spending pressured the Soviet Union to keep up its international commitments<n>B.Reagan encouraged engagement with the Soviet Union<n>C.Reagan encouraged a softer approach towards communism<n>D.Reagan reduced military spending and this allowed the Soviet Union space to reform[SEP]A
What is the implication of American exceptionalism in terms of global economics?<n>A.It encourages the use of tariffs<n>B.It encourages nationalization<n>C.It encourages liberalization of global trade<n>D.It encourages redistribution of wealth[SEP]C
What were the primary institutions of the liberal international economic order?<n>I. GATT<n>II. IMF<n>III. World Bank<n>IV. NATO<n>A.IV only<n>B.II and III<n>C.I, II, and III<n>D.I, II, III, and IV[SEP]C
According to Rosenau, which factor is important to consider in explaining the foreign policy behavior of the United States?<n>A.The external environment of the international system<n>B.Domestic environment, government and bureaucracy<n>C.The President's individual personality.<n>D.All of the above[SEP]D
How many states in the international system are likely to have nuclear weapons right now?<n>A.Fewer than 7<n>B.Between 8 and 15<n>C.Between 16 and 25<n>D.More than 25[SEP]B
Why is NSC 68 seen as a turning point in US Cold War Foreign policy?<n>A.It indicated the primacy of economic containment<n>B.It indicated a desire to engage with the Soviet Union<n>C.It indicated a shift towards military containment<n>D.It dispensed with the idea of containment[SEP]C
What was meant by the term 'Rogue States'?<n>A.States aligned with the USSR during the Cold War<n>B.States outside of the 'family of nations'<n>C.Communist States<n>D.The former Soviet states[SEP]B
The foreign policy doctrine that European nations should stay out of Latin America is known as<n>A.the Powell Doctrine.<n>B.the Roosevelt Doctrine.<n>C.the Bush Doctrine.<n>D.the Monroe Doctrine.[SEP]D
Why do contemporary European liberal democrats tend to object to the influence of exceptionalism on American foreign policy?<n>A.They see it as a challenge to European global influence<n>B.They see it as an ideological façade for US imperialism<n>C.They see it as a temporary phenomenon<n>D.None of the above[SEP]B
In what sense might exceptionalism link isolationist and internationalist strategies?<n>A.Both encourage world government<n>B.Both focus on the decline of the American power<n>C.It doesn't - the two are fundamentally opposed<n>D.Both can be viewed as different means of achieving the same liberal ends[SEP]D
Why do realists tend to object to the influence of exceptionalism on American foreign policy?<n>A.It leads to a diminished focus on collective security<n>B.It diminishes the prospects for world government<n>C.It enhances the prospects for world government<n>D.It leads to a diminished focus on security, power and interest[SEP]D
What features distinguish Socio-Economic accounts of US Cold War foreign policy?<n>A.A focus on class and economic interests<n>B.A focus on liberal ideology<n>C.A focus on language and culture<n>D.All of the above[SEP]A
What did Paul Kennedy argue in his book The Rise and Fall of the Great Powers?<n>A.All of the world's leading economies were declining due to low growth and inflation<n>B.The United States could no longer remain a superpower and was in decline<n>C.The soft power of the United States would allow it to avoid decline<n>D.The rise of Japan had been exaggerated[SEP]B
The Joint Chiefs of Staff is made up of<n>A.the critical domestic and foreign policy advisers to the president.<n>B.foreign policy advisers who meet with the president daily.<n>C.the commanding officers of each branch of the armed services, along with a chairperson and vice chairperson.<n>D.the highest-ranking generals in the U.S. Army.[SEP]C
What is American exceptionalism?<n>A.The belief that the United States is different from other major powers because it is concerned not only with Power, but also with Principles.<n>B.The belief that the United States is different because it is the most powerful nation in the world.<n>C.The belief that the United States is pacifist.<n>D.The belief that the United States is different because it is motivated more by economic factors than other countries are.[SEP]A
The role of gathering and interpreting intelligence about foreign countries in order to allow policymakers to make good foreign policy decisions was given to<n>A.the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA).<n>B.the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI).<n>C.the National Security Council.<n>D.Both A and B are correct.[SEP]A
The cooperative international organization of 185 countries designed to stabilize the exchange of currencies and the world economy is<n>A.the World Bank.<n>B.the United Nations.<n>C.UNICEF.<n>D.the International Monetary Fund.[SEP]D
What policies are part of a grand strategy of Offshore Balancing?<n>A.Maintaining a balance between the United States and other countries and not entering into alliances<n>B.Investing equally in domestic and international security with balanced protection against terrorism and other states<n>C.Embrace multi-polarity, show greater restraint internationally and require other states to meet their own security burdens.<n>D.Isolate the US from the international system and not seek global power[SEP]C
What was the Marshall plan?<n>A.A plan designed to aid the economy recovery of Europe<n>B.An attempt to diminish the potential attraction of the Soviet system to Europeans<n>C.An aid programme that embedded US influence in Europe<n>D.All of the above[SEP]D
What accounted for the US avoidance of catastrophe at the hands of the British in 1814?<n>A.Naval victories<n>B.Diplomacy<n>C.British preoccupation with Europe<n>D.All of the above[SEP]D
What was a main organizational change proposed by the 9/11 Commission with regard to the U.S. intelligence community?<n>A.Creation of the Department of Homeland Security<n>B.Moving the Department of Defense Intelligence Agencies to the CIA for better coordination<n>C.Creation of the National Intelligence Director<n>D.Moving the domestic intelligence component of the FBI to the CIA[SEP]C
The government body formed to coordinate American foreign and military policy is known as<n>A.the National Security Council.<n>B.the Pentagon.<n>C.the Defense Policy Institute.<n>D.the Joint Chiefs of Staff.[SEP]A
What drives US foreign policy according to the Marxist perspective?<n>A.Economic protectionism<n>B.Class consciousness<n>C.The search for new markets<n>D.Superstructure[SEP]C
Why might American exceptionalism lead to opposition to world government?<n>A.Its general anti-statism opposes centralized government<n>B.It views world government as impractical<n>C.It views the UN as a sufficient form of global governance<n>D.None of the above[SEP]A
Which of the following considers states to be the primary actors in international relations?<n>A.Realism<n>B.Idealism<n>C.Liberalism<n>D.None of the above[SEP]A
The importance of oil in shaping U.S. foreign policy helps to highlight<n>A.the importance of military superiority.<n>B.how the importance of oil is often overexaggerated.<n>C.the increasing importance of economic instruments of foreign policy.<n>D.the need to drill for domestic sources.[SEP]C
The president's principal civilian adviser on the military is the<n>A.national security adviser.<n>B.director of the CIA.<n>C.secretary of defense.<n>D.secretary of state.[SEP]C
How do Ideational approaches to US foreign policy during the Cold War differ from Realist accounts of the same period?<n>A.They place greater emphasis on economic factors<n>B.They place greater emphasis on material interests and power<n>C.They place greater emphasis on ideology and beliefs<n>D.They place greater emphasis on geopolitics[SEP]C
How did the relationship between President and Congress develop under George H.W. Bush and Bill Clinton?<n>A.Congress asserted its primacy in foreign policy<n>B.US foreign policy became substantially decentralized<n>C.The Presidency welcomed the influence of Congress<n>D.None of the above[SEP]D
Which of the following points supports the argument for American unilateralism?<n>A.Benevolent hegemony<n>B.Ineffectiveness of multilateralism<n>C.American power<n>D.All of the above[SEP]D
Historically, what has been the general pattern of defense spending in the United States?<n>A.Steady increases over time.<n>B.Increased spending during wars, with demobilization bringing spending down but not back to prewar levels<n>C.Unpredictable fluctuations.<n>D.Increased spending during wars, with further increases after the war to prepare for future engagements.[SEP]B
International development may be tied to the security of the state, why?<n>A.Threats to the state centralize political and economic power, threatening state development<n>B.Too many casualties drain the productive power of the state<n>C.Threats to the state encourage socialism<n>D.The two are correlated, but there is no causal effect[SEP]A
What was the 'Domino Theory'?<n>A.The idea that the Cold War operated according to the principles of game theory<n>B.The idea that certain states were of higher value than others to the US during the Cold War<n>C.The idea that the fall of one state to communism would inexorably lead to the fall of its neighbors<n>D.The idea that the growth of democracy in one state would inexorably lead to its growth in others[SEP]C
What has been an effective way of disbursing US foreign aid to encourage change in target states?<n>A.Conditional programs, such as the Millennium Challenge, that require change before receipt of aid<n>B.the use of intergovernmental organizations to monitor aid disbursement<n>C.withdrawal of aid for bad policies<n>D.None of the above, international aid never works[SEP]A
What was established at Bretton Woods in 1994 to stabilize the global economy?<n>A.The International Monetary Fund (IMF)<n>B.The US Dollar as the world's reserve currency<n>C.The General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT)<n>D.All of the above[SEP]D
Which of the following is NOT a good predictor of which states will get nuclear weapons?<n>A.Receipt of sensitive nuclear assistance<n>B.Wealth/GDP<n>C.Rivalry with a nuclear state<n>D.Regime type[SEP]D
What was 'democratic enlargement'?<n>A.A proposal for reform of the US system of government<n>B.A proposal for the extension of democratic rule globally<n>C.A proposal for the extension of free markets<n>D.Both b and c[SEP]D
What is meant by the phrase 'empire by invitation'?<n>A.Voluntary reliance on an external power for security<n>B.Willful openness to colonization<n>C.Cultural imperialism<n>D.Open advocacy of imperialism for economic gain[SEP]A
In what way did the George W Bush administration change the direction of US foreign policy?<n>A.It criticized international organizations, rather than trying to strengthen them<n>B.It expanded NATO to include former Soviet states<n>C.It focused on a more personal style of leadership<n>D.It increased international support for the United States[SEP]A
Peace, commerce, and honest friendship with all nations, entangling alliances with none'. Identify the speaker.<n>A.James Madison<n>B.Abraham Lincoln<n>C.Woodrow Wilson<n>D.Thomas Jefferson[SEP]D