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* feat: type<T>()

* refactor: using py::type as class

* refactor: py::object as base

* wip: tigher api

* refactor: fix conversion and limit API further

* docs: some added notes from @EricCousineau-TRI

* refactor: use py::type::of

* Added guards to the includes

Added new CI config

Added new trigger

Changed CI workflow name

Debug CI

Debug CI

Debug CI

Debug CI

Added flags fro PGI

Disable Eigen

Removed tests that fail

Uncomment lines

* fix: missing include

fix: minor style cleanup

tests: support skipping

ci: remove and tighten a bit

fix: try msvc workaround for pgic

* tests: split up prealoc tests

* fix: PGI compiler fix

* fix: PGI void_t only

* fix: try to appease nvcc

* ci: better ordering for slow tests

* ci: minor improvements to testing

* ci: Add NumPy to testing

* ci: Eigen generates CUDA warnings / PGI errors

* Added CentOS7 back for a moment

* Fix YAML

* ci: runs-on missing

* centos7 is missing pytest

* ci: use C++11 on CentOS 7

* ci: test something else

* Try just adding flags on CentOS 7

* fix: CentOS 7

* refactor: move include to shared location

* Added verbose flag

* Try to use system cmake3 on CI

* Try to use system cmake3 on CI, attempt2

* Try to use system cmake3 on CI, attempt3

* tests: not finding pytest should be a warning, not a fatal error

* tests: cleanup

* Weird issue?

* fix: final polish
Co-authored-by: Andrii Verbytskyi <andrii.verbytskyi@mpp.mpg.de>
Co-authored-by: Henry Schreiner <henryschreineriii@gmail.com>
Co-authored-by: Andrii Verbytskyi <averbyts@cern.ch>

Add check if `str(handle)` correctly converted the object, and throw py::error_already_set if not (bis) (#2477)

* Add check if `str(handle)` correctly converted the object, and throw py::error_already_set if not

* Fix tests on Python 3

* Apply @rwgk's fixes to cherry-picked commits from #2392

The variables PYBIND11_HAS_OPTIONAL, PYBIND11_HAS_EXP_OPTIONAL, PYBIND11_HAS_VARIANT,
__clang__, __APPLE__ were not checked for defined in a minortity of instances.

If the project using pybind11 sets -Wundef, the warnings will show.

The test build is also modified to catch the problem.

* fix: support nvcc and test

* fixup! fix: support nvcc and test

* docs: mention what compilers fail

* fix: much simpler logic

* refactor: slightly faster / clearer

* ci: only annotate linux for now

* style: block some common mistakes

* feat: py::pos_only

* fix: review points from @YannickJadoul

* fix: review points from @bstaletic

* refactor: kwonly -> kw_only

* ci: harden chrono test, mark another macos 4.9 dev failure

This should help with a little of the flakiness seen with the timing test

* Update tests/test_chrono.py

* Can also fail

Adding missing `bytes` type to `test_constructors()`, to exercise the code change.

The changes in the PR were cherry-picked from PR #2409 (with a very minor
modification in test_pytypes.py related to flake8). Via PR #2409, these
changes were extensively tested in the Google environment, as summarized here:
https://docs.google.com/document/d/1TPL-J__mph_yHa1quDvsO12E_F5OZnvBaZlW9IIrz8M/
The changes in this PR did not cause an issues at all.

Note that `test_constructors()` before this PR passes for Python 2 only
because `pybind11::str` can hold `PyUnicodeObject` or `PyBytesObject`. As a
side-effect of this PR, `test_constructors()` no longer relies on this
permissive `pybind11::str` behavior. However, the permissive behavior is still
exercised/exposed via the existing `test_pybind11_str_raw_str()`.

The test code change is designed to enable easy removal later, when Python 2
support is dropped.

For completeness: confusingly, the non-test code changes travelled through PR

Example `ambiguous conversion` error fixed by this PR:
```
pybind11/tests/test_pytypes.cpp:214:23: error: ambiguous conversion for functional-style cast from 'pybind11::detail::item_accessor' (aka 'accessor<accessor_policies::generic_item>') to 'py::bytes'
            "bytes"_a=py::bytes(d["bytes"]),
                      ^~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
pybind11/include/pybind11/detail/../pytypes.h:957:21: note: candidate constructor
    PYBIND11_OBJECT(bytes, object, PYBIND11_BYTES_CHECK)
                    ^
pybind11/include/pybind11/detail/../pytypes.h:957:21: note: candidate constructor
pybind11/include/pybind11/detail/../pytypes.h:987:15: note: candidate constructor
inline bytes::bytes(const pybind11::str &s) {
              ^
1 error generated.
```

Fix bug roundtripping datetime.time objects after midnight in eastern hemisphere timezones (#2417) (#2438)

* Fix bug roundtripping datetime.time objects after midnight in eastern hemisphere timezones (#2417)

* tests: check more timezones

* Fix review remarks: remove useless comment and skip setting TZ environment variable on Windows

tests: fix CI by including <algorithm> to stop MSVC from complaining about std::count_if in tests/test_sequences_and_iterators.cpp (#2435)

Throw exception on returning a unique_ptr or shared_ptr nullptr (or any other holder type) from py::init, rather than crashing (#2430)

* tests: keep source dir clean

* ci: make first build inplace

* ci: drop dev setting (wasn't doing anything)

* tests: warn if source directory is dirty

* feat: FindPython support

* refactor: rename to PYBIND11_FINDPYTHON

* docs: Caps fixes

* feat: NOPYTHON mode

* test: check simple call

* docs: add changelog/upgrade guide

* feat: Support Python3 and Python2

* refactor: Use targets in tests

* fix: support CMake 3.4+

* feat: classic search also finds virtual environments

* docs: some updates from @wjakob's review

* fix: wrong name for QUIET mode variable, reported by @skoslowski

* refactor: cleaner output messaging

* fix: support debug Python's in FindPython mode too

* fixup! refactor: cleaner output messaging

* fix: missing pybind11_FOUND and pybind11_INCLUDE_DIR restored to subdir mode

* fix: nicer reporting of Python / PyPy

* fix: out-of-order variable fix

* docs: minor last-minute cleanup

* fix: throwing repr caused a segfault

* fixup! ci: include Python 3.9 RC1 (#2387)

* docs: move helpers to .github where allowed

* docs: more guidelines in CONTRIBUTING

* chore: update issue templates

* fix: review from @bstaletic

* refactor: a few points from @rwgk

* docs: more touchup, review changes

* tests: refactor and cleanup

* refactor: more consistent

* tests: vendor six

* tests: more xfails, nicer system

* tests: simplify to info

* tests: suggestions from @YannickJadoul and @bstaletic

* tests: restore some pypy tests that now pass

* tests: rename info to env

* tests: strict False/True

* tests: drop explicit strict=True again

* tests: reduce minimum PyTest to 3.1

To deal with exceptions that hit destructors or other noexcept functions.

Includes fixes to support Python 2.7 and extends documentation on
error handling.

@virtuald and @YannickJadoul both contributed to this PR.

Important gain: uniformity & therefore easier cleanup when we drop PY2 support.
Very slight loss: it was nice to have `str is bytes` as a reminder in this specific context.

Fix logic in test_bytes_to_string
Co-authored-by: Henry Schreiner <henryschreineriii@gmail.com>

Modified Vector STL bind initialization from a buffer type with optimization for simple arrays (#2298)

* Modified Vector STL bind initialization from a buffer type with optimization for simple arrays

* Add subtests to demonstrate processing Python buffer protocol objects with step > 1

* Fixed memoryview step test to only run on Python 3+

* Modified Vector constructor from buffer to return by value for readability

These tests will also alert us to any behavior changes across Python and PyPy versions.

Hardening tests in preparation for changing `pybind11::str` to only hold `PyUnicodeObject` (NOT also `bytes`). Note that this test exposes that `pybind11::str` can also hold `bytes`.

* Enable py::ellipsis on Python 2

* Enable py::ellipsis tests on Python 2 and mention `Ellipsis` in the docs

Fixes issue #1878

fix: include PYTHON_IS_DEBUG

fixes #2191