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[skip ci]

There are two separate additions:

1. `py::hash(obj)` is equivalent to the Python `hash(obj)`.
2. `.def(hash(py::self))` registers the hash function defined by
   `std::hash<T>` as the Python hash function.

This is analogous to `py::init()` vs `__init__` + placement-new.
`py::pickle()` reuses most of the implementation details of `py::init()`.

[skip ci]

[skip ci]

* Deprecate the `py::object::str()` member function since `py::str(obj)`
  is now equivalent and preferred

* Make `py::repr()` a free function

* Make sure obj.cast<T>() works as expected when T is a Python type

`obj.cast<T>()` should be the same as `T(obj)`, i.e. it should convert
the given object to a different Python type. However, `obj.cast<T>()`
usually calls `type_caster::load()` which only checks the type without
doing any actual conversion. That causes a very unexpected `cast_error`.
This commit makes it so that `obj.cast<T>()` and `T(obj)` are the same
when T is a Python type.

* Simplify pytypes converting constructor implementation

It's not necessary to maintain a full set of converting constructors
and assignment operators + const& and &&. A single converting const&
constructor will work and there is no impact on binary size. On the
other hand, the conversion functions can be significantly simplified.

* Add type caster for std::experimental::optional

* Add tests for std::experimental::optional

* Support both <optional> / <experimental/optional>

* Mention std{::experimental,}::optional in the docs

* Make reference(_internal) the default return value policy for properties

Before this, all `def_property*` functions used `automatic` as their
default return value policy. This commit makes it so that:

 * Non-static properties use `reference_interal` by default, thus
   matching `def_readonly` and `def_readwrite`.

 * Static properties use `reference` by default, thus matching
   `def_readonly_static` and `def_readwrite_static`.

In case `cpp_function` is passed to any `def_property*`, its policy will
be used instead of any defaults. User-defined arguments in `extras`
still have top priority and will override both the default policies and
the ones from `cpp_function`.

Resolves #436.

* Almost always use return_value_policy::move for rvalues

For functions which return rvalues or rvalue references, the only viable
return value policies are `copy` and `move`. `reference(_internal)` and
`take_ownership` would take the address of a temporary which is always
an error.

This commit prevents possible user errors by overriding the bad rvalue
policies with `move`. Besides `move`, only `copy` is allowed, and only
if it's explicitly selected by the user.

This is also a necessary safety feature to support the new default
return value policies for properties: `reference(_internal)`.

With this there is no more need for manual user declarations like
`PYBIND11_DECLARE_HOLDER_TYPE(T, std::shared_ptr<T>)`. Existing ones
will still compile without error -- they will just be ignored silently.

Resolves #446.

Sergey Lyskov pointed out that the trampoline mechanism used to override
virtual methods from within Python caused unnecessary overheads when
instantiating the original (i.e. non-extended) class.

This commit removes this inefficiency, but some syntax changes were
needed to achieve this. Projects using this features will need to make a
few changes:

In particular, the example below shows the old syntax to instantiate a
class with a trampoline:

class_<TrampolineClass>("MyClass")
    .alias<MyClass>()
    ....

This is what should be used now:

class_<MyClass, std::unique_ptr<MyClass, TrampolineClass>("MyClass")
    ....

Importantly, the trampoline class is now specified as the *third*
argument to the class_ template, and the alias<..>() call is gone. The
second argument with the unique pointer is simply the default holder
type used by pybind11.