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* maint(clang-tidy) Improve code readability

* Fix minor typos

* Revert optimization that removed test case

* Fix comment formatting

* Revert another optimization to repro an issue

* Remove make_unique since it C++14 and newer only

* eformat comments

* Fix unsignedness of comparison

* Update comment

* Removing stray semicolons (discovered by running clang-format v12 followed by tools/check-style.sh). (#3087)

* Manually moving `// NOLINT` comments so that clang-format does not move them to the wrong places.

* Manually reformatting comments related to `static_assert`s so that clang-format does not need two passes.

* Empty lines between #includes, to prevent clang-format from shuffling the order and thereby confusing MSVC 2015.

* git diff -U0 --no-color HEAD^ | python3 $HOME/clone/llvm-project/clang/tools/clang-format/clang-format-diff.py -p1 -style=file -i

* Copying from prework_no_rst branch (PR #3087): test_numpy_array.cpp, test_stl.cpp

* Manual changes reducing NOLINTs.

* clang-format-diff.py

* Minor adjustment to avoid MSVC warning C4702: unreachable code

* Allow casting from None to a custom object, closes #2778

* ci.yml patch from the smart_holder branch for full CI coverage.

* Initial fixes

* Whoops

* Finish clang-tidy manual fixes

* Add two missing fixes

* Revert

* Update clang-tidy

* Try to fix unreachable code error

* Move nolint comment

* Apply missing fix

* Don't override clang-tidy config

* Does this fix clang-tidy?

* Make all clang-tidy errors visible

* Add comments about NOLINTs and remove a few

* Fix typo

* Enable and apply clang-tidy readability and misc fixes.

* Revert deprecated tester

* add space to tests/test_constants_and_functions.cpp

* CI: Intel icc/icpc via oneAPI

Add testing for Intel icc/icpc via the oneAPI images.
Intel oneAPI is in a late beta stage, currently shipping
oneAPI beta09 with ICC 20.2.

* CI: Skip Interpreter Tests for Intel

Cannot find how to add this, neiter the package `libc6-dev` nor
`intel-oneapi-mkl-devel` help when installed to solve this:
```
-- Looking for C++ include pthread.h
-- Looking for C++ include pthread.h - not found
CMake Error at /__t/cmake/3.18.4/x64/cmake-3.18.4-Linux-x86_64/share/cmake-3.18/Modules/FindPackageHandleStandardArgs.cmake:165 (message):
  Could NOT find Threads (missing: Threads_FOUND)
Call Stack (most recent call first):
  /__t/cmake/3.18.4/x64/cmake-3.18.4-Linux-x86_64/share/cmake-3.18/Modules/FindPackageHandleStandardArgs.cmake:458 (_FPHSA_FAILURE_MESSAGE)
  /__t/cmake/3.18.4/x64/cmake-3.18.4-Linux-x86_64/share/cmake-3.18/Modules/FindThreads.cmake:234 (FIND_PACKAGE_HANDLE_STANDARD_ARGS)
  tests/test_embed/CMakeLists.txt:17 (find_package)
```

* CI: libc6-dev from GCC for ICC

* CI: Run bare metal for oneAPI

* CI: Ubuntu 18.04 for oneAPI

* CI: Intel +Catch -Eigen

* CI: CMake from Apt (ICC tests)

* CI: Replace Intel Py with GCC Py

* CI: Intel w/o GCC's Eigen

* CI: ICC with verbose make

* [Debug] Find core dump

* tests: use arg{} instead of arg() for Intel

* tests: adding a few more missing {}

* fix: sync with @tobiasleibner's branch

* fix: try ubuntu 20-04

* fix: drop exit 1

* style: clang tidy fix

* style: fix missing NOLINT

* ICC: Update Compiler Name

Changed upstream with the last oneAPI release.

* ICC CI: Downgrade pytest

pytest 6 does not capture the `discard_as_unraisable` stderr and
just writes a warning with its content instead.

* Use new test pinning requirements.txt

* tests: add notes about intel, cleanup
Co-authored-by: Henry Schreiner <henryschreineriii@gmail.com>

* demo kwarg with none(false)

* Reorder and extend tests for arg::none(false) in test_methods_and_attributes.py::test_accepts_none

* Fix arg::none() for keyword arguments

* Add changelog note

* Fix names of no_none_kw test functions
Co-authored-by: Yannick Jadoul <yannick.jadoul@belgacom.net>

* feat: add a priority overload with py::prepend

* doc: fix wording as suggested by rwgk

* feat: add get_pointer

* refactor: is_prepended -> prepend (internal)

* docs: suggestion from @wjakob

* tests: add test covering get_pointer/set_pointer

* WIP: module -> module_ without typedef

* refactor: allow py::module to work again

* added overload for l-value ref-qualified methods

* Added test.
Before, the code would have failed to build.

* Make `overload_cast_impl` available in C++11 mode.

Narrow the scope of the `#if defined(PYBIND11_CPP14)` block around overload_cast to only
cover the parts where C++14 is stricly required. Thus, the implementation in
`pybind11::details::overload_cast_impl` is still available in C++11 mode.

* PR #1581: Modify test to use overload_cast_impl, update docs and change log

py::class_<T>'s `def_property` and `def_property_static` can now take a
`nullptr` as the getter to allow a write-only property to be established
(mirroring Python's `property()` built-in when `None` is given for the
getter).

This also updates properties to use the new nullptr constructor internally.

This udpates all the remaining tests to the new test suite code and
comment styles started in #898.  For the most part, the test coverage
here is unchanged, with a few minor exceptions as noted below.

- test_constants_and_functions: this adds more overload tests with
  overloads with different number of arguments for more comprehensive
  overload_cast testing.  The test style conversion broke the overload
  tests under MSVC 2015, prompting the additional tests while looking
  for a workaround.

- test_eigen: this dropped the unused functions `get_cm_corners` and
  `get_cm_corners_const`--these same tests were duplicates of the same
  things provided (and used) via ReturnTester methods.

- test_opaque_types: this test had a hidden dependence on ExampleMandA
  which is now fixed by using the global UserType which suffices for the
  relevant test.

- test_methods_and_attributes: this required some additions to UserType
  to make it usable as a replacement for the test's previous SimpleType:
  UserType gained a value mutator, and the `value` property is not
  mutable (it was previously readonly).  Some overload tests were also
  added to better test overload_cast (as described above).

- test_numpy_array: removed the untemplated mutate_data/mutate_data_t:
  the templated versions with an empty parameter pack expand to the same
  thing.

- test_stl: this was already mostly in the new style; this just tweaks
  things a bit, localizing a class, and adding some missing
  `// test_whatever` comments.

- test_virtual_functions: like `test_stl`, this was mostly in the new
  test style already, but needed some `// test_whatever` comments.
  This commit also moves the inherited virtual example code to the end
  of the file, after the main set of tests (since it is less important
  than the other tests, and rather length); it also got renamed to
  `test_inherited_virtuals` (from `test_inheriting_repeat`) because it
  tests both inherited virtual approaches, not just the repeat approach.

This changes the pointer `cast()` in `PYBIND11_TYPE_CASTER` to recognize
the `take_ownership` policy: if casting a pointer with take-ownership,
the `cast()` now recalls `cast()` with a dereferenced rvalue (rather
than the previous code, which was always calling it with a const lvalue
reference), and deletes the pointer after the chained `cast()` is
complete.

This makes code like:

    m.def("f", []() { return new std::vector<int>(100, 1); },
        py::return_value_policy::take_ownership);

do the expected thing by taking over ownership of the returned pointer
(which is deleted once the chained cast completes).

When defining method from a member function pointer (e.g. `.def("f",
&Derived::f)`) we run into a problem if `&Derived::f` is actually
implemented in some base class `Base` when `Base` isn't
pybind-registered.

This happens because the class type is deduced from the member function
pointer, which then becomes a lambda with first argument this deduced
type.  For a base class implementation, the deduced type is `Base`, not
`Derived`, and so we generate and registered an overload which takes a
`Base *` as first argument.  Trying to call this fails if `Base` isn't
registered (e.g.  because it's an implementation detail class that isn't
intended to be exposed to Python) because the type caster for an
unregistered type always fails.

This commit adds a `method_adaptor` function that rebinds a member
function to a derived type member function and otherwise (i.e. regular
functions/lambda) leaves the argument as-is.  This is now used for class
definitions so that they are bound with type being registered rather
than a potential base type.

A closely related fix in this commit is to similarly update the lambdas
used for `def_readwrite` (and related) to bind to the class type being
registered rather than the deduced type so that registering a property
that resolves to a base class member similarly generates a usable
function.

Fixes #854, #910.
Co-Authored-By: Dean Moldovan <dean0x7d@gmail.com>

This attribute lets you disable (or explicitly enable) passing None to
an argument that otherwise would allow it by accepting
a value by raw pointer or shared_ptr.

Python 3's `PyInstanceMethod_Type` hides itself via its `tp_descr_get`,
which prevents aliasing methods via `cls.attr("m2") = cls.attr("m1")`:
instead the `tp_descr_get` returns a plain function, when called on a
class, or a `PyMethod`, when called on an instance.  Override that
behaviour for pybind11 types with a special bypass for
`PyInstanceMethod_Types`.

We currently fail at runtime when trying to call a method that is
overloaded with both static and non-static methods.  This is something
python won't allow: the object is either a function or an instance, and
can't be both.

Don't try to define these in the issues submodule, because that fails
if testing without issues compiled in (e.g. using
cmake -DPYBIND11_TEST_OVERRIDE=test_methods_and_attributes.cpp).

Fixes #775.

Assignments of the form `Type.static_prop = value` should be translated to
`Type.static_prop.__set__(value)` except when `isinstance(value, static_prop)`.

Now that only one shared metaclass is ever allocated, it's extremely
cheap to enable it for all pybind11 types.

* Deprecate the default py::metaclass() since it's not needed anymore.
* Allow users to specify a custom metaclass via py::metaclass(handle).

Instead of creating a new unique metaclass for each type, the builtin
`property` type is subclassed to support static properties. The new
setter/getters always pass types instead of instances in their `self`
argument. A metaclass is still required to support this behavior, but
it doesn't store any data anymore, so a new one doesn't need to be
created for each class. There is now only one common metaclass which
is shared by all pybind11 types.

* Fix debugging output for nameless py::arg annotations

This fixes a couple bugs with nameless py::arg() (introduced in #634)
annotations:

- the argument name was being used in debug mode without checking that
  it exists (which would result in the std::string construction throwing
  an exception for being invoked with a nullptr)
- the error output says "keyword arguments", but py::arg_v() can now
  also be used for positional argument defaults.
- the debugging output "in function named 'blah'" was overly verbose:
  changed it to just "in function 'blah'".

* Fix missing space in debug test string

* Moved tests from issues to methods_and_attributes

This changes the function dispatching code for overloaded functions into
a two-pass procedure where we first try all overloads with
`convert=false` for all arguments.  If no function calls succeeds in the
first pass, we then try a second pass where we allow arguments to have
`convert=true` (unless, of course, the argument was explicitly specified
with `py::arg().noconvert()`).

For non-overloaded methods, the two-pass procedure is skipped (we just
make the overload-allowed call).  The second pass is also skipped if it
would result in the same thing (i.e. where all arguments are
`.noconvert()` arguments).

This adds support for controlling the `convert` flag of arguments
through the py::arg annotation.  This then allows arguments to be
flagged as non-converting, which the type_caster is able to use to
request different behaviour.

Currently, AFAICS `convert` is only used for type converters of regular
pybind11-registered types; all of the other core type_casters ignore it.
We can, however, repurpose it to control internal conversion of
converters like Eigen and `array`: most usefully to give callers a way
to disable the conversion that would otherwise occur when a
`Eigen::Ref<const Eigen::Matrix>` argument is passed a numpy array that
requires conversion (either because it has an incompatible stride or the
wrong dtype).

Specifying a noconvert looks like one of these:

    m.def("f1", &f, "a"_a.noconvert() = "default"); // Named, default, noconvert
    m.def("f2", &f, "a"_a.noconvert()); // Named, no default, no converting
    m.def("f3", &f, py::arg().noconvert()); // Unnamed, no default, no converting

(The last part--being able to declare a py::arg without a name--is new:
previous py::arg() only accepted named keyword arguments).

Such an non-convert argument is then passed `convert = false` by the
type caster when loading the argument.  Whether this has an effect is up
to the type caster itself, but as mentioned above, this would be
extremely helpful for the Eigen support to give a nicer way to specify
a "no-copy" mode than the custom wrapper in the current PR, and
moreover isn't an Eigen-specific hack.

This commit includes modifications that are needed to get pybind11 to work with PyPy. The full test suite compiles and runs except for a last few functions that are commented out (due to problems in PyPy that were reported on the PyPy bugtracker).

Two somewhat intrusive changes were needed to make it possible: two new tags ``py::buffer_protocol()`` and ``py::metaclass()`` must now be specified to the ``class_`` constructor if the class uses the buffer protocol and/or requires a metaclass (e.g. for static properties).

Note that this is only for the PyPy version based on Python 2.7 for now. When the PyPy 3.x has caught up in terms of cpyext compliance, a PyPy 3.x patch will follow.

* Make reference(_internal) the default return value policy for properties

Before this, all `def_property*` functions used `automatic` as their
default return value policy. This commit makes it so that:

 * Non-static properties use `reference_interal` by default, thus
   matching `def_readonly` and `def_readwrite`.

 * Static properties use `reference` by default, thus matching
   `def_readonly_static` and `def_readwrite_static`.

In case `cpp_function` is passed to any `def_property*`, its policy will
be used instead of any defaults. User-defined arguments in `extras`
still have top priority and will override both the default policies and
the ones from `cpp_function`.

Resolves #436.

* Almost always use return_value_policy::move for rvalues

For functions which return rvalues or rvalue references, the only viable
return value policies are `copy` and `move`. `reference(_internal)` and
`take_ownership` would take the address of a temporary which is always
an error.

This commit prevents possible user errors by overriding the bad rvalue
policies with `move`. Besides `move`, only `copy` is allowed, and only
if it's explicitly selected by the user.

This is also a necessary safety feature to support the new default
return value policies for properties: `reference(_internal)`.

Making `cppfunction` explicit broke `def_property` and friends.
The added tests would not compile without an implicit `cppfunction`.

`PyType_Ready` would usually perform the inheritance for us, but it
can't adjust `tp_basicsize` appropriately.

Adding or removing tests is a little bit cumbersome currently: the test
needs to be added to CMakeLists.txt, the init function needs to be
predeclared in pybind11_tests.cpp, then called in the plugin
initialization.  While this isn't a big deal for tests that are being
committed, it's more of a hassle when working on some new feature or
test code for which I temporarily only care about building and linking
the test being worked on rather than the entire test suite.

This commit changes tests to self-register their initialization by
having each test initialize a local object (which stores the
initialization function in a static variable).  This makes changing the
set of tests being build easy: one only needs to add or comment out
test names in tests/CMakeLists.txt.

A couple other minor changes that go along with this:

- test_eigen.cpp is now included in the test list, then removed if eigen
  isn't available.  This lets you disable the eigen tests by commenting
  it out, just like all the other tests, but keeps the build working
  without eigen eigen isn't available.  (Also, if it's commented out, we
  don't even bother looking for and reporting the building with/without
  eigen status message).

- pytest is now invoked with all the built test names (with .cpp changed
  to .py) so that it doesn't try to run tests that weren't built.

Use simple asserts and pytest's powerful introspection to make testing
simpler. This merges the old .py/.ref file pairs into simple .py files
where the expected values are right next to the code being tested.

This commit does not touch the C++ part of the code and replicates the
Python tests exactly like the old .ref-file-based approach.