Initial commit

example/example5.ref

+Polly is a parrot
+Molly is a dog
+Woof!
+Constructing Example5..
+In Example5::callback() 
+Polly is a parrot
+Molly is a dog
+The following error is expected: Incompatible function arguments. The following argument types are supported:
+    1. dog_bark(Dog) -> None
+
+Callback function 1 called!
+False
+Callback function 2 called : Hello, True, 5
+5
+got callback: 3 4
+Destructing Example5..

example/example6.cpp

+/*
+    example/example6.cpp -- Example 6: supporting Pythons' sequence
+    protocol, iterators, etc.
+
+    Copyright (c) 2015 Wenzel Jakob <wenzel@inf.ethz.ch>
+
+    All rights reserved. Use of this source code is governed by a
+    BSD-style license that can be found in the LICENSE file.
+*/
+
+#include "example.h"
+#include <pybind/operators.h>
+
+class Sequence {
+public:
+    Sequence(size_t size) : m_size(size) {
+        std::cout << "Value constructor: Creating a sequence with " << m_size << " entries" << std::endl;
+        m_data = new float[size];
+        memset(m_data, 0, sizeof(float) * size);
+    }
+
+    Sequence(const std::vector<float> &value) : m_size(value.size()) {
+        std::cout << "Value constructor: Creating a sequence with " << m_size << " entries" << std::endl;
+        m_data = new float[m_size];
+        memcpy(m_data, &value[0], sizeof(float) * m_size);
+    }
+
+    Sequence(const Sequence &s) : m_size(s.m_size) {
+        std::cout << "Copy constructor: Creating a sequence with " << m_size << " entries" << std::endl;
+        m_data = new float[m_size];
+        memcpy(m_data, s.m_data, sizeof(float)*m_size);
+    }
+
+    Sequence(Sequence &&s) : m_size(s.m_size), m_data(s.m_data) {
+        std::cout << "Move constructor: Creating a sequence with " << m_size << " entries" << std::endl;
+        s.m_size = 0;
+        s.m_data = nullptr;
+    }
+
+    ~Sequence() {
+        std::cout << "Freeing a sequence with " << m_size << " entries" << std::endl;
+        delete[] m_data;
+    }
+
+    Sequence &operator=(const Sequence &s) {
+        std::cout << "Assignment operator: Creating a sequence with " << s.m_size << " entries" << std::endl;
+        delete[] m_data;
+        m_size = s.m_size;
+        m_data = new float[m_size];
+        memcpy(m_data, s.m_data, sizeof(float)*m_size);
+        return *this;
+    }
+
+    Sequence &operator=(Sequence &&s) {
+        std::cout << "Move assignment operator: Creating a sequence with " << s.m_size << " entries" << std::endl;
+        if (&s != this) {
+            delete[] m_data;
+            m_size = s.m_size;
+            m_data = s.m_data;
+            s.m_size = 0;
+            s.m_data = nullptr;
+        }
+        return *this;
+    }
+
+    bool operator==(const Sequence &s) const {
+        if (m_size != s.size())
+            return false;
+        for (size_t i=0; i<m_size; ++i)
+            if (m_data[i] != s[i])
+                return false;
+        return true;
+    }
+
+    bool operator!=(const Sequence &s) const {
+        return !operator==(s);
+    }
+
+    float operator[](size_t index) const {
+        return m_data[index];
+    }
+
+    float &operator[](size_t index) {
+        return m_data[index];
+    }
+
+    bool contains(float v) const {
+        for (size_t i=0; i<m_size; ++i)
+            if (v == m_data[i])
+                return true;
+        return false;
+    }
+
+    Sequence reversed() const {
+        Sequence result(m_size);
+        for (size_t i=0; i<m_size; ++i)
+            result[m_size-i-1] = m_data[i];
+        return result;
+    }
+
+    size_t size() const { return m_size; }
+
+private:
+    size_t m_size;
+    float *m_data;
+};
+
+namespace {
+    // Special iterator data structure for python
+    struct PySequenceIterator {
+        PySequenceIterator(const Sequence &seq, py::object ref) : seq(seq), ref(ref) { }
+
+        float next() {
+            if (index == seq.size())
+                throw py::stop_iteration();
+            return seq[index++];
+        }
+
+        const Sequence &seq;
+        py::object ref; // keep a reference
+        size_t index = 0;
+    };
+};
+
+void init_ex6(py::module &m) {
+    py::class_<Sequence> seq(m, "Sequence");
+
+    seq.def(py::init<size_t>())
+       .def(py::init<const std::vector<float>&>())
+       /// Bare bones interface
+       .def("__getitem__", [](const Sequence &s, size_t i) {
+            if (i >= s.size())
+                throw py::index_error();
+            return s[i];
+        })
+       .def("__setitem__", [](Sequence &s, size_t i, float v) {
+            if (i >= s.size())
+                throw py::index_error();
+            s[i] = v;
+        })
+       .def("__len__", &Sequence::size)
+       /// Optional sequence protocol operations
+       .def("__iter__", [](py::object s) { return PySequenceIterator(s.cast<const Sequence &>(), s); })
+       .def("__contains__", [](const Sequence &s, float v) { return s.contains(v); })
+       .def("__reversed__", [](const Sequence &s) -> Sequence { return s.reversed(); })
+       /// Slicing protocol (optional)
+       .def("__getitem__", [](const Sequence &s, py::slice slice) -> Sequence* {
+            py::ssize_t start, stop, step, slicelength;
+            if (!slice.compute(s.size(), &start, &stop, &step, &slicelength))
+                throw py::error_already_set();
+            Sequence *seq = new Sequence(slicelength);
+            for (int i=0; i<slicelength; ++i) {
+                (*seq)[i] = s[start]; start += step;
+            }
+            return seq;
+        })
+       .def("__setitem__", [](Sequence &s, py::slice slice, const Sequence &value) {
+            py::ssize_t start, stop, step, slicelength;
+            if (!slice.compute(s.size(), &start, &stop, &step, &slicelength))
+                throw py::error_already_set();
+            if ((size_t) slicelength != value.size())
+                throw std::runtime_error("Left and right hand size of slice assignment have different sizes!");
+            for (int i=0; i<slicelength; ++i) {
+                s[start] = value[i]; start += step;
+            }
+        })
+       /// Comparisons
+       .def(py::self == py::self)
+       .def(py::self != py::self);
+       // Could also define py::self + py::self for concatenation, etc.
+
+    py::class_<PySequenceIterator>(seq, "Iterator")
+        .def("__iter__", [](PySequenceIterator &it) -> PySequenceIterator& { return it; })
+        .def("__next__", &PySequenceIterator::next);
+}

example/example6.py

+#!/usr/bin/env python3
+import sys
+sys.path.append('.')
+
+from example import Sequence
+
+s = Sequence(5)
+print("s = " + str(s))
+print("len(s) = " + str(len(s)))
+print("s[0], s[3] = %f %f" % (s[0], s[3]))
+print('12.34 in s: ' + str(12.34 in s))
+s[0], s[3] = 12.34, 56.78
+print('12.34 in s: ' + str(12.34 in s))
+print("s[0], s[3] = %f %f" % (s[0], s[3]))
+rev = reversed(s)
+rev2 = s[::-1]
+print("rev[0], rev[1], rev[2], rev[3], rev[4] = %f %f %f %f %f" % (rev[0], rev[1], rev[2], rev[3], rev[4]))
+
+for i in rev:
+    print(i, end=' ')
+print('')
+for i in rev2:
+    print(i, end=' ')
+print('')
+print(rev == rev2)
+rev[0::2] = Sequence([2.0, 2.0, 2.0])
+for i in rev:
+    print(i, end=' ')
+print('')

example/example6.ref

+Value constructor: Creating a sequence with 5 entries
+Value constructor: Creating a sequence with 5 entries
+Copy constructor: Creating a sequence with 5 entries
+Freeing a sequence with 5 entries
+s = <example.Sequence object at 0x100380fb0>
+len(s) = 5
+s[0], s[3] = 0.000000 0.000000
+12.34 in s: False
+12.34 in s: True
+s[0], s[3] = 12.340000 56.779999
+rev[0], rev[1], rev[2], rev[3], rev[4] = 0.000000 56.779999 0.000000 0.000000 12.340000
+12.34000015258789
+0.0
+0.0
+56.779998779296875
+0.0
+Freeing a sequence with 5 entries
+Freeing a sequence with 5 entries

example/example7.cpp

+/*
+    example/example7.cpp -- Example 7: supporting Pythons' buffer protocol
+
+    Copyright (c) 2015 Wenzel Jakob <wenzel@inf.ethz.ch>
+
+    All rights reserved. Use of this source code is governed by a
+    BSD-style license that can be found in the LICENSE file.
+*/
+
+#include "example.h"
+
+class Matrix {
+public:
+    Matrix(size_t rows, size_t cols) : m_rows(rows), m_cols(cols) {
+        std::cout << "Value constructor: Creating a " << rows << "x" << cols << " matrix " << std::endl;
+        m_data = new float[rows*cols];
+        memset(m_data, 0, sizeof(float) * rows * cols);
+    }
+
+    Matrix(const Matrix &s) : m_rows(s.m_rows), m_cols(s.m_cols) {
+        std::cout << "Copy constructor: Creating a " << m_rows << "x" << m_cols << " matrix " << std::endl;
+        m_data = new float[m_rows * m_cols];
+        memcpy(m_data, s.m_data, sizeof(float) * m_rows * m_cols);
+    }
+
+    Matrix(Matrix &&s) : m_rows(s.m_rows), m_cols(s.m_cols), m_data(s.m_data) {
+        std::cout << "Move constructor: Creating a " << m_rows << "x" << m_cols << " matrix " << std::endl;
+        s.m_rows = 0;
+        s.m_cols = 0;
+        s.m_data = nullptr;
+    }
+
+    ~Matrix() {
+        std::cout << "Freeing a " << m_rows << "x" << m_cols << " matrix " << std::endl;
+        delete[] m_data;
+    }
+
+    Matrix &operator=(const Matrix &s) {
+        std::cout << "Assignment operator : Creating a " << s.m_rows << "x" << s.m_cols << " matrix " << std::endl;
+        delete[] m_data;
+        m_rows = s.m_rows;
+        m_cols = s.m_cols;
+        m_data = new float[m_rows * m_cols];
+        memcpy(m_data, s.m_data, sizeof(float) * m_rows * m_cols);
+        return *this;
+    }
+
+    Matrix &operator=(Matrix &&s) {
+        std::cout << "Move assignment operator : Creating a " << s.m_rows << "x" << s.m_cols << " matrix " << std::endl;
+        if (&s != this) {
+            delete[] m_data;
+            m_rows = s.m_rows; m_cols = s.m_cols; m_data = s.m_data;
+            s.m_rows = 0; s.m_cols = 0; s.m_data = nullptr;
+        }
+        return *this;
+    }
+
+    float operator()(size_t i, size_t j) const {
+        return m_data[i*m_cols + j];
+    }
+
+    float &operator()(size_t i, size_t j) {
+        return m_data[i*m_cols + j];
+    }
+
+    float *data() { return m_data; }
+
+    size_t rows() const { return m_rows; }
+    size_t cols() const { return m_cols; }
+private:
+    size_t m_rows;
+    size_t m_cols;
+    float *m_data;
+};
+
+void init_ex7(py::module &m) {
+    py::class_<Matrix> mtx(m, "Matrix");
+
+    mtx.def(py::init<size_t, size_t>())
+        /// Construct from a buffer
+        .def("__init__", [](Matrix &v, py::buffer b) {
+            py::buffer_info info = b.request();
+            if (info.format != py::format_descriptor<float>::value() || info.ndim != 2)
+                throw std::runtime_error("Incompatible buffer format!");
+            new (&v) Matrix(info.shape[0], info.shape[1]);
+            memcpy(v.data(), info.ptr, sizeof(float) * v.rows() * v.cols());
+        })
+
+       .def("rows", &Matrix::rows)
+       .def("cols", &Matrix::cols)
+
+        /// Bare bones interface
+       .def("__getitem__", [](const Matrix &m, std::pair<size_t, size_t> i) {
+            if (i.first >= m.rows() || i.second >= m.cols())
+                throw py::index_error();
+            return m(i.first, i.second);
+        })
+       .def("__setitem__", [](Matrix &m, std::pair<size_t, size_t> i, float v) {
+            if (i.first >= m.rows() || i.second >= m.cols())
+                throw py::index_error();
+            m(i.first, i.second) = v;
+        })
+       /// Provide buffer access
+       .def_buffer([](Matrix &m) -> py::buffer_info {
+            return py::buffer_info(
+                m.data(),                              /* Pointer to buffer */
+                sizeof(float),                         /* Size of one scalar */
+                py::format_descriptor<float>::value(), /* Python struct-style format descriptor */
+                2,                                     /* Number of dimensions */
+                { m.rows(), m.cols() },                /* Buffer dimensions */
+                { sizeof(float) * m.rows(),            /* Strides (in bytes) for each index */
+                  sizeof(float) }
+            );
+        });
+}

example/example7.py

+#!/usr/bin/env python3
+import sys
+sys.path.append('.')
+
+from example import Matrix
+import numpy as np
+
+m = Matrix(5, 5)
+
+print(m[2, 3])
+m[2, 3] = 4
+print(m[2, 3])
+
+m2 = np.array(m, copy=False)
+print(m2)
+print(m2[2, 3])
+m2[2, 3] = 5
+print(m[2, 3])
+
+m3 = np.array([[1,2,3],[4,5,6]]).astype(np.float32)
+print(m3)
+m4 = Matrix(m3)
+for i in range(m4.rows()):
+    for j in range(m4.cols()):
+        print(m4[i, j], end = ' ')
+    print()

example/example7.ref

+Value constructor: Creating a 5x5 matrix 
+0.0
+4.0
+[[ 0.  0.  0.  0.  0.]
+ [ 0.  0.  0.  0.  0.]
+ [ 0.  0.  0.  4.  0.]
+ [ 0.  0.  0.  0.  0.]
+ [ 0.  0.  0.  0.  0.]]
+4.0
+5.0
+Freeing a 5x5 matrix 

example/example8.cpp

+/*
+    example/example8.cpp -- Example 8: binding classes with
+    custom reference counting, implicit conversions between types
+
+    Copyright (c) 2015 Wenzel Jakob <wenzel@inf.ethz.ch>
+
+    All rights reserved. Use of this source code is governed by a
+    BSD-style license that can be found in the LICENSE file.
+*/
+
+#include "example.h"
+#include "object.h"
+
+/// Object subclass
+class MyObject : public Object {
+public:
+    MyObject(int value) : value(value) {
+        std::cout << toString() << " constructor" << std::endl;
+    }
+
+    std::string toString() const {
+        return "MyObject[" + std::to_string(value) + "]";
+    }
+
+protected:
+    virtual ~MyObject() {
+        std::cout << toString() << " destructor" << std::endl;
+    }
+
+private:
+    int value;
+};
+
+/// Make pybind aware of the ref-counted wrapper type
+namespace pybind { namespace detail {
+template <typename T> class type_caster<ref<T>>
+    : public type_caster_holder<T, ref<T>> { };
+}}
+
+Object *make_object_1() { return new MyObject(1); }
+ref<Object> make_object_2() { return new MyObject(2); }
+MyObject *make_myobject_4() { return new MyObject(4); }
+ref<MyObject> make_myobject_5() { return new MyObject(5); }
+
+void print_object_1(const Object *obj) { std::cout << obj->toString() << std::endl; }
+void print_object_2(ref<Object> obj) { std::cout << obj->toString() << std::endl; }
+void print_object_3(const ref<Object> &obj) { std::cout << obj->toString() << std::endl; }
+void print_object_4(const ref<Object> *obj) { std::cout << (*obj)->toString() << std::endl; }
+
+void print_myobject_1(const MyObject *obj) { std::cout << obj->toString() << std::endl; }
+void print_myobject_2(ref<MyObject> obj) { std::cout << obj->toString() << std::endl; }
+void print_myobject_3(const ref<MyObject> &obj) { std::cout << obj->toString() << std::endl; }
+void print_myobject_4(const ref<MyObject> *obj) { std::cout << (*obj)->toString() << std::endl; }
+
+void init_ex8(py::module &m) {
+    py::class_<Object, ref<Object>> obj(m, "Object");
+    obj.def("getRefCount", &Object::getRefCount);
+
+    py::class_<MyObject, ref<MyObject>>(m, "MyObject", obj)
+        .def(py::init<int>());
+
+    m.def("make_object_1", &make_object_1);
+    m.def("make_object_2", &make_object_2);
+    m.def("make_myobject_4", &make_myobject_4);
+    m.def("make_myobject_5", &make_myobject_5);
+    m.def("print_object_1", &print_object_1);
+    m.def("print_object_2", &print_object_2);
+    m.def("print_object_3", &print_object_3);
+    m.def("print_object_4", &print_object_4);
+    m.def("print_myobject_1", &print_myobject_1);
+    m.def("print_myobject_2", &print_myobject_2);
+    m.def("print_myobject_3", &print_myobject_3);
+    m.def("print_myobject_4", &print_myobject_4);
+
+    py::implicitly_convertible<py::int_, MyObject>();
+}

example/example8.py

+#!/usr/bin/env python3
+import sys
+sys.path.append('.')
+
+from example import MyObject
+from example import make_object_1
+from example import make_object_2
+from example import make_myobject_4
+from example import make_myobject_5
+from example import print_object_1
+from example import print_object_2
+from example import print_object_3
+from example import print_object_4
+from example import print_myobject_1
+from example import print_myobject_2
+from example import print_myobject_3
+from example import print_myobject_4
+
+for o in [make_object_1(), make_object_2(), MyObject(3)]:
+    print("Reference count = %i" % o.getRefCount())
+    print_object_1(o)
+    print_object_2(o)
+    print_object_3(o)
+    print_object_4(o)
+
+for o in [make_myobject_4(), make_myobject_5(), MyObject(6), 7]:
+    print(o)
+    if not isinstance(o, int):
+        print_object_1(o)
+        print_object_2(o)
+        print_object_3(o)
+        print_object_4(o)
+    print_myobject_1(o)
+    print_myobject_2(o)
+    print_myobject_3(o)
+    print_myobject_4(o)

example/example9.cpp

+/*
+    example/example9.cpp -- Example 9: nested modules
+    and internal references
+
+    Copyright (c) 2015 Wenzel Jakob <wenzel@inf.ethz.ch>
+
+    All rights reserved. Use of this source code is governed by a
+    BSD-style license that can be found in the LICENSE file.
+*/
+
+#include "example.h"
+
+void submodule_func() {
+    std::cout << "submodule_func()" << std::endl;
+}
+
+class A {
+public:
+    A(int v) : v(v) { std::cout << "A constructor" << std::endl; }
+    ~A() { std::cout << "A destructor" << std::endl; }
+    A(const A&) { std::cout << "A copy constructor" << std::endl; }
+    std::string toString() { return "A[" + std::to_string(v) + "]"; }
+private:
+    int v;
+};
+
+class B {
+public:
+    B() { std::cout << "B constructor" << std::endl; }
+    ~B() { std::cout << "B destructor" << std::endl; }
+    B(const B&) { std::cout << "B copy constructor" << std::endl; }
+    A &get_a1() { return a1; }
+    A &get_a2() { return a2; }
+
+    A a1{1};
+    A a2{2};
+};
+
+void init_ex9(py::module &m) {
+    py::module m_sub = m.def_submodule("submodule");
+    m_sub.def("submodule_func", &submodule_func);
+
+    py::class_<A>(m_sub, "A")
+        .def(py::init<int>())
+        .def("__repr__", &A::toString);
+
+    py::class_<B>(m_sub, "B")
+        .def(py::init<>())
+        .def("get_a1", &B::get_a1, "Return the internal A 1", py::return_value_policy::reference_internal)
+        .def("get_a2", &B::get_a2, "Return the internal A 2", py::return_value_policy::reference_internal)
+        .def_readwrite("a1", &B::a1)  // def_readonly uses an internal reference return policy by default
+        .def_readwrite("a2", &B::a2);
+}

example/example9.py

+#!/usr/bin/env python3
+import sys
+sys.path.append('.')
+
+import example
+
+print(example.__name__)
+print(example.submodule.__name__)
+
+from example.submodule import *
+
+submodule_func()
+
+b = B()
+print(b.get_a1())
+print(b.a1)
+print(b.get_a2())
+print(b.a2)
+
+b.a1 = A(42)
+b.a2 = A(43)
+
+print(b.get_a1())
+print(b.a1)
+print(b.get_a2())
+print(b.a2)
+

example/object.h

+#if !defined(__OBJECT_H)
+#define __OBJECT_H
+
+#include <atomic>
+
+/// Reference counted object base class
+class Object {
+public:
+    /// Default constructor
+    Object() { }
+
+    /// Copy constructor
+    Object(const Object &) : m_refCount(0) {}
+
+	/// Return the current reference count
+	int getRefCount() const { return m_refCount; };
+
+	/// Increase the object's reference count by one
+	void incRef() const { ++m_refCount; }
+
+	/** \brief Decrease the reference count of
+	 * the object and possibly deallocate it.
+	 *
+	 * The object will automatically be deallocated once
+	 * the reference count reaches zero.
+	 */
+	void decRef(bool dealloc = true) const {
+	    --m_refCount;
+	    if (m_refCount == 0 && dealloc)
+            delete this;
+        else if (m_refCount < 0)
+	        throw std::runtime_error("Internal error: reference count < 0!");
+    }
+
+    virtual std::string toString() const = 0;
+protected:
+	/** \brief Virtual protected deconstructor.
+	 * (Will only be called by \ref ref)
+	 */
+	virtual ~Object() { }
+private:
+    mutable std::atomic<int> m_refCount { 0 };
+};
+
+/**
+ * \brief Reference counting helper
+ *
+ * The \a ref refeference template is a simple wrapper to store a
+ * pointer to an object. It takes care of increasing and decreasing
+ * the reference count of the object. When the last reference goes
+ * out of scope, the associated object will be deallocated.
+ *
+ * \ingroup libcore
+ */
+template <typename T> class ref {
+public:
+	/// Create a nullptr reference
+    ref() : m_ptr(nullptr) { std::cout << "Created empty ref" << std::endl; }
+
+    /// Construct a reference from a pointer
+	ref(T *ptr) : m_ptr(ptr) {
+        std::cout << "Initialized ref from pointer " << ptr<< std::endl;
+	    if (m_ptr) ((Object *) m_ptr)->incRef();
+	}
+
+	/// Copy constructor
+    ref(const ref &r) : m_ptr(r.m_ptr) {
+        std::cout << "Initialized ref from ref " << r.m_ptr << std::endl;
+        if (m_ptr)
+            ((Object *) m_ptr)->incRef();
+    }
+
+    /// Move constructor
+    ref(ref &&r) : m_ptr(r.m_ptr) {
+        std::cout << "Initialized ref with move from ref " << r.m_ptr << std::endl;
+        r.m_ptr = nullptr; 
+    }
+
+    /// Destroy this reference
+    ~ref() {
+        std::cout << "Destructing ref " << m_ptr << std::endl;
+        if (m_ptr)
+            ((Object *) m_ptr)->decRef();
+    }
+
+    /// Move another reference into the current one
+	ref& operator=(ref&& r) {
+        std::cout << "Move-assigning ref " << r.m_ptr << std::endl;
+		if (*this == r)
+			return *this;
+		if (m_ptr)
+			((Object *) m_ptr)->decRef();
+		m_ptr = r.m_ptr;
+		r.m_ptr = nullptr;
+		return *this;
+	}
+
+	/// Overwrite this reference with another reference
+	ref& operator=(const ref& r) {
+        std::cout << "Assigning ref " << r.m_ptr << std::endl;
+		if (m_ptr == r.m_ptr)
+			return *this;
+		if (m_ptr)
+			((Object *) m_ptr)->decRef();
+		m_ptr = r.m_ptr;
+		if (m_ptr)
+			((Object *) m_ptr)->incRef();
+		return *this;
+	}
+
+	/// Overwrite this reference with a pointer to another object
+	ref& operator=(T *ptr) {
+        std::cout << "Assigning ptr " << ptr << " to ref" << std::endl;
+		if (m_ptr == ptr)
+			return *this;
+		if (m_ptr)
+			((Object *) m_ptr)->decRef();
+		m_ptr = ptr;
+		if (m_ptr)
+			((Object *) m_ptr)->incRef();
+		return *this;
+	}
+
+	/// Compare this reference with another reference
+	bool operator==(const ref &r) const { return m_ptr == r.m_ptr; }
+
+	/// Compare this reference with another reference
+	bool operator!=(const ref &r) const { return m_ptr != r.m_ptr; }
+
+	/// Compare this reference with a pointer
+	bool operator==(const T* ptr) const { return m_ptr == ptr; }
+
+	/// Compare this reference with a pointer
+	bool operator!=(const T* ptr) const { return m_ptr != ptr; }
+
+	/// Access the object referenced by this reference
+	T* operator->() { return m_ptr; }
+
+	/// Access the object referenced by this reference
+	const T* operator->() const { return m_ptr; }
+
+	/// Return a C++ reference to the referenced object
+	T& operator*() { return *m_ptr; }
+
+	/// Return a const C++ reference to the referenced object
+	const T& operator*() const { return *m_ptr; }
+
+	/// Return a pointer to the referenced object
+	operator T* () { return m_ptr; }
+
+	/// Return a const pointer to the referenced object
+	T* get() { return m_ptr; }
+
+	/// Return a pointer to the referenced object
+	const T* get() const { return m_ptr; }
+private:
+	T *m_ptr;
+};
+
+#endif /* __OBJECT_H */

example/run_test.py

+import subprocess, sys, os
+
+path = os.path.dirname(__file__)
+if path != '':
+    os.chdir(path)
+
+name = sys.argv[1]
+output    = subprocess.check_output([sys.executable, name + ".py"]).decode('utf-8')
+reference = open(name + '.ref', 'r').read()
+
+if output == reference:
+    print('Test "%s" succeeded.' % name)
+    exit(0)
+else:
+    print('Test "%s" FAILED!' % name)
+    exit(-1)

include/pybind/cast.h

+/*
+    pybind/cast.h: Partial template specializations to cast between
+    C++ and Python types
+
+    Copyright (c) 2015 Wenzel Jakob <wenzel@inf.ethz.ch>
+
+    All rights reserved. Use of this source code is governed by a
+    BSD-style license that can be found in the LICENSE file.
+*/
+
+#if !defined(__PYBIND_CAST)
+#define __PYBIND_CAST
+
+#include "pytypes.h"
+#include "mpl.h"
+#include "typeid.h"
+#include <map>
+#include <array>
+
+NAMESPACE_BEGIN(pybind)
+NAMESPACE_BEGIN(detail)
+
+/// Generic type caster for objects stored on the heap
+template <typename type> class type_caster {
+public:
+    typedef instance<type> instance_type;
+
+    static std::string name() { return type_id<type>(); }
+
+    type_caster() {
+        auto const& registered_types = get_internals().registered_types;
+        auto it = registered_types.find(type_id<type>());
+        if (it != registered_types.end())
+            typeinfo = &it->second;
+    }
+
+    bool load(PyObject *src, bool convert) {
+        if (src == nullptr || typeinfo == nullptr)
+            return false;
+        if (PyType_IsSubtype(Py_TYPE(src), typeinfo->type)) {
+            value = ((instance_type *) src)->value;
+            return true;
+        }
+        if (convert) {
+            for (auto &converter : typeinfo->implicit_conversions) {
+                temp = object(converter(src, typeinfo->type), false);
+                if (load(temp.ptr(), false))
+                    return true;
+            }
+        }
+        return false;
+    }
+
+    static PyObject *cast(const type &src, return_value_policy policy, PyObject *parent) {
+        if (policy == return_value_policy::automatic)
+            policy = return_value_policy::copy;
+        return cast(&src, policy, parent);
+    }
+
+    static PyObject *cast(const type *_src, return_value_policy policy, PyObject *parent) {
+        type *src = const_cast<type *>(_src);
+        if (src == nullptr) {
+            Py_INCREF(Py_None);
+            return Py_None;
+        }
+        // avoid an issue with internal references matching their parent's address
+        bool dont_cache = parent && ((instance<void> *) parent)->value == (void *) src;
+        auto& internals = get_internals();
+        auto it_instance = internals.registered_instances.find(src);
+        if (it_instance != internals.registered_instances.end() && !dont_cache) {
+            PyObject *inst = it_instance->second;
+            Py_INCREF(inst);
+            return inst;
+        }
+        auto it = internals.registered_types.find(type_id<type>());
+        if (it == internals.registered_types.end()) {
+            std::string msg = std::string("Unregistered type : ") + type_id<type>();
+            PyErr_SetString(PyExc_TypeError, msg.c_str());
+            return nullptr;
+        }
+        auto &type_info = it->second;
+        instance_type *inst = (instance_type *) PyType_GenericAlloc(type_info.type, 0);
+        inst->value = src;
+        inst->owned = true;
+        inst->parent = nullptr;
+        if (policy == return_value_policy::automatic)
+            policy = return_value_policy::take_ownership;
+        handle_return_value_policy<type>(inst, policy, parent);
+        PyObject *inst_pyobj = (PyObject *) inst;
+        type_info.init_holder(inst_pyobj);
+        if (!dont_cache)
+            internals.registered_instances[inst->value] = inst_pyobj;
+        return inst_pyobj;
+    }
+
+    template <class T, typename std::enable_if<std::is_copy_constructible<T>::value, int>::type = 0>
+    static void handle_return_value_policy(instance<T> *inst, return_value_policy policy, PyObject *parent) {
+        if (policy == return_value_policy::copy) {
+            inst->value = new T(*(inst->value));
+        } else if (policy == return_value_policy::reference) {
+            inst->owned = false;
+        } else if (policy == return_value_policy::reference_internal) {
+            inst->owned = false;
+            inst->parent = parent;
+            Py_XINCREF(parent);
+        }
+    }
+
+    template <class T, typename std::enable_if<!std::is_copy_constructible<T>::value, int>::type = 0>
+    static void handle_return_value_policy(instance<T> *inst, return_value_policy policy, PyObject *parent) {
+        if (policy == return_value_policy::copy) {
+            throw cast_error("return_value_policy = copy, but the object is non-copyable!");
+        } else if (policy == return_value_policy::reference) {
+            inst->owned = false;
+        } else if (policy == return_value_policy::reference_internal) {
+            inst->owned = false;
+            inst->parent = parent;
+            Py_XINCREF(parent);
+        }
+    }
+
+    operator type*() { return value; }
+    operator type&() { return *value; }
+protected:
+    type *value = nullptr;
+    const type_info *typeinfo = nullptr;
+    object temp;
+};
+
+#define TYPE_CASTER(type, py_name) \
+    protected: \
+        type value; \
+    public: \
+        static std::string name() { return py_name; } \
+        static PyObject *cast(const type *src, return_value_policy policy, PyObject *parent) { \
+            return cast(*src, policy, parent); \
+        } \
+        operator type*() { return &value; } \
+        operator type&() { return value; } \
+
+#define TYPE_CASTER_NUMBER(type, py_type, from_type, to_pytype) \
+    template <> class type_caster<type> { \
+    public: \
+        bool load(PyObject *src, bool) { \
+            value = (type) from_type(src); \
+            if (value == (type) -1 && PyErr_Occurred()) { \
+                PyErr_Clear(); \
+                return false; \
+            } \
+            return true; \
+        } \
+        static PyObject *cast(type src, return_value_policy /* policy */, PyObject * /* parent */) { \
+            return to_pytype((py_type) src); \
+        } \
+        TYPE_CASTER(type, #type); \
+    };
+
+TYPE_CASTER_NUMBER(int32_t, long, PyLong_AsLong, PyLong_FromLong)
+TYPE_CASTER_NUMBER(uint32_t, unsigned long, PyLong_AsUnsignedLong, PyLong_FromUnsignedLong)
+TYPE_CASTER_NUMBER(int64_t, PY_LONG_LONG, PyLong_AsLongLong, PyLong_FromLongLong)
+TYPE_CASTER_NUMBER(uint64_t, unsigned PY_LONG_LONG, PyLong_AsUnsignedLongLong, PyLong_FromUnsignedLongLong)
+
+#if defined(__APPLE__) // size_t/ssize_t are separate types on Mac OS X
+TYPE_CASTER_NUMBER(ssize_t, Py_ssize_t, PyLong_AsSsize_t, PyLong_FromSsize_t)
+TYPE_CASTER_NUMBER(size_t, size_t, PyLong_AsSize_t, PyLong_FromSize_t)
+#endif
+
+TYPE_CASTER_NUMBER(float, float, PyFloat_AsDouble, PyFloat_FromDouble)
+TYPE_CASTER_NUMBER(double, double, PyFloat_AsDouble, PyFloat_FromDouble)
+
+template <> class type_caster<mpl::detail::void_type> {
+public:
+    bool load(PyObject *, bool) { return true; }
+    static PyObject *cast(mpl::detail::void_type, return_value_policy /* policy */, PyObject * /* parent */) {
+        Py_INCREF(Py_None);
+        return Py_None;
+    }
+    TYPE_CASTER(mpl::detail::void_type, "None");
+};
+
+template <> class type_caster<bool> {
+public:
+    bool load(PyObject *src, bool) {
+        if (src == Py_True) { value = true; return true; }
+        else if (src == Py_False) { value = false; return true; }
+        else return false;
+    }
+    static PyObject *cast(bool src, return_value_policy /* policy */, PyObject * /* parent */) {
+        PyObject *result = src ? Py_True : Py_False;
+        Py_INCREF(result);
+        return result;
+    }
+    TYPE_CASTER(bool, "bool");
+};
+
+template <> class type_caster<std::string> {
+public:
+    bool load(PyObject *src, bool) {
+        const char *ptr = PyUnicode_AsUTF8(src);
+        if (!ptr) { PyErr_Clear(); return false; }
+        value = std::string(ptr);
+        return true;
+    }
+    static PyObject *cast(const std::string &src, return_value_policy /* policy */, PyObject * /* parent */) {
+        return PyUnicode_FromString(src.c_str());
+    }
+    TYPE_CASTER(std::string, "str");
+};
+
+template <> class type_caster<char> {
+public:
+    bool load(PyObject *src, bool) {
+        char *ptr = PyUnicode_AsUTF8(src);
+        if (!ptr) { PyErr_Clear(); return false; }
+        value = ptr;
+        return true;
+    }
+
+    static PyObject *cast(const char *src, return_value_policy /* policy */, PyObject * /* parent */) {
+        return PyUnicode_FromString(src);
+    }
+
+    static PyObject *cast(char src, return_value_policy /* policy */, PyObject * /* parent */) {
+        char str[2] = { src, '\0' };
+        return PyUnicode_DecodeLatin1(str, 1, nullptr);
+    }
+
+    static std::string name() { return "str"; }
+
+    operator char*() { return value; }
+    operator char() { return *value; }
+protected:
+    char *value;
+};
+
+template <typename Value> struct type_caster<std::vector<Value>> {
+    typedef std::vector<Value> type;
+    typedef type_caster<Value> value_conv;
+public:
+    bool load(PyObject *src, bool convert) {
+        if (!PyList_Check(src))
+            return false;
+        size_t size = (size_t) PyList_GET_SIZE(src);
+        value.reserve(size);
+        value.clear();
+        for (size_t i=0; i<size; ++i) {
+            value_conv conv;
+            if (!conv.load(PyList_GetItem(src, (ssize_t) i), convert))
+                return false;
+            value.push_back((Value) conv);
+        }
+        return true;
+    }
+
+    static PyObject *cast(const type &src, return_value_policy policy, PyObject *parent) {
+        PyObject *list = PyList_New(src.size());
+        size_t index = 0;
+        for (auto const &value: src) {
+            PyObject *value_ = value_conv::cast(value, policy, parent);
+            if (!value_) {
+                Py_DECREF(list);
+                return nullptr;
+            }
+            PyList_SetItem(list, index++, value_);
+        }
+        return list;
+    }
+    TYPE_CASTER(type, "list<" + value_conv::name() + ">");
+};
+
+template <typename Key, typename Value> struct type_caster<std::map<Key, Value>> {
+public:
+    typedef std::map<Key, Value>  type;
+    typedef type_caster<Key>   key_conv;
+    typedef type_caster<Value> value_conv;
+
+    bool load(PyObject *src, bool convert) {
+        if (!PyDict_Check(src))
+            return false;
+
+        value.clear();
+        PyObject *key_, *value_;
+        ssize_t pos = 0;
+        key_conv kconv;
+        value_conv vconv;
+        while (PyDict_Next(src, &pos, &key_, &value_)) {
+            if (!kconv.load(key_, convert) || !vconv.load(value_, convert))
+                return false;
+            value[kconv] = vconv;
+        }
+        return true;
+    }
+
+    static PyObject *cast(const type &src, return_value_policy policy, PyObject *parent) {
+        PyObject *dict = PyDict_New();
+        for (auto const &kv: src) {
+            PyObject *key   = key_conv::cast(kv.first, policy, parent);
+            PyObject *value = value_conv::cast(kv.second, policy, parent);
+            if (!key || !value || PyDict_SetItem(dict, key, value) < 0) {
+                Py_XDECREF(key);
+                Py_XDECREF(value);
+                Py_DECREF(dict);
+                return nullptr;
+            }
+            Py_DECREF(key);
+            Py_DECREF(value);
+        }
+        return dict;
+    }
+    TYPE_CASTER(type, "dict<" + key_conv::name() + ", " + value_conv::name() + ">");
+};
+
+template <typename T1, typename T2> class type_caster<std::pair<T1, T2>> {
+    typedef std::pair<T1, T2> type;
+public:
+    bool load(PyObject *src, bool convert) {
+        if (!PyTuple_Check(src) || PyTuple_Size(src) != 2)
+            return false;
+        if (!first.load(PyTuple_GetItem(src, 0), convert))
+            return false;
+        return second.load(PyTuple_GetItem(src, 1), convert);
+    }
+
+    static PyObject *cast(const type &src, return_value_policy policy, PyObject *parent) {
+        PyObject *o1 = type_caster<typename mpl::normalize_type<T1>::type>::cast(src.first, policy, parent);
+        PyObject *o2 = type_caster<typename mpl::normalize_type<T2>::type>::cast(src.second, policy, parent);
+        if (!o1 || !o2) {
+            Py_XDECREF(o1);
+            Py_XDECREF(o2);
+            return nullptr;
+        }
+        PyObject *tuple = PyTuple_New(2);
+        PyTuple_SetItem(tuple, 0, o1);
+        PyTuple_SetItem(tuple, 1, o2);
+        return tuple;
+    }
+
+    static std::string name() {
+        return "(" + type_caster<T1>::name() + ", " + type_caster<T2>::name() + ")";
+    }
+
+    operator type() {
+        return type(first, second);
+    }
+protected:
+    type_caster<typename mpl::normalize_type<T1>::type> first;
+    type_caster<typename mpl::normalize_type<T2>::type> second;
+};
+
+template <typename ... Tuple> class type_caster<std::tuple<Tuple...>> {
+    typedef std::tuple<Tuple...> type;
+public:
+    enum { size = sizeof...(Tuple) };
+
+    bool load(PyObject *src, bool convert) {
+        return load(src, convert, typename mpl::make_index_sequence<sizeof...(Tuple)>::type());
+    }
+
+    static PyObject *cast(const type &src, return_value_policy policy, PyObject *parent) {
+        return cast(src, policy, parent, typename mpl::make_index_sequence<size>::type());
+    }
+
+    static std::string name() {
+        std::array<std::string, size> names {{
+            type_caster<typename mpl::normalize_type<Tuple>::type>::name()...
+        }};
+        std::string result("(");
+        int counter = 0;
+        for (auto const &name : names) {
+            result += name;
+            if (++counter < size)
+                result += ", ";
+        }
+        result += ")";
+        return result;
+    }
+
+    operator type() {
+        return cast(typename mpl::make_index_sequence<sizeof...(Tuple)>::type());
+    }
+protected:
+    template <size_t ... Index> type cast(mpl::index_sequence<Index...>) {
+        return type((Tuple) std::get<Index>(value)...);
+    }
+
+    template <size_t ... Indices> bool load(PyObject *src, bool convert, mpl::index_sequence<Indices...>) {
+        if (!PyTuple_Check(src))
+            return false;
+        if (PyTuple_Size(src) != size)
+            return false;
+        std::array<bool, size> results {{
+            std::get<Indices>(value).load(PyTuple_GetItem(src, Indices), convert)...
+        }};
+        for (bool r : results)
+            if (!r)
+                return false;
+        return true;
+    }
+
+    /* Implementation: Convert a C++ tuple into a Python tuple */
+    template <size_t ... Indices> static PyObject *cast(const type &src, return_value_policy policy, PyObject *parent, mpl::index_sequence<Indices...>) {
+        std::array<PyObject *, size> results {{
+            type_caster<typename mpl::normalize_type<Tuple>::type>::cast(std::get<Indices>(src), policy, parent)...
+        }};
+        bool success = true;
+        for (auto result : results)
+            if (result == nullptr)
+                success = false;
+        if (success) {
+            PyObject *tuple = PyTuple_New(size);
+            int counter = 0;
+            for (auto result : results)
+                PyTuple_SetItem(tuple, counter++, result);
+            return tuple;
+        } else {
+            for (auto result : results) {
+                Py_XDECREF(result);
+            }
+            return nullptr;
+        }
+    }
+
+protected:
+    std::tuple<type_caster<typename mpl::normalize_type<Tuple>::type>...> value;
+};
+
+/// Type caster for holder types like std::shared_ptr, etc.
+template <typename type, typename holder_type> class type_caster_holder : public type_caster<type> {
+public:
+    typedef type_caster<type> parent;
+    bool load(PyObject *src, bool convert) {
+        if (!parent::load(src, convert))
+            return false;
+        holder = holder_type(parent::value);
+        return true;
+    }
+    explicit operator type*() { return this->value; }
+    explicit operator type&() { return *(this->value); }
+    explicit operator holder_type&() { return holder; }
+    explicit operator holder_type*() { return &holder; }
+protected:
+    holder_type holder;
+};
+
+template <> class type_caster<handle> {
+public:
+    bool load(PyObject *src) {
+        value = handle(src);
+        return true;
+    }
+    static PyObject *cast(const handle &src, return_value_policy /* policy */, PyObject * /* parent */) {
+        src.inc_ref();
+        return (PyObject *) src.ptr();
+    }
+    TYPE_CASTER(handle, "handle");
+};
+
+#define TYPE_CASTER_PYTYPE(name) \
+    template <> class type_caster<name> { \
+    public: \
+        bool load(PyObject *src, bool) { value = name(src, true); return true; } \
+        static PyObject *cast(const name &src, return_value_policy /* policy */, PyObject * /* parent */) { \
+            src.inc_ref(); return (PyObject *) src.ptr(); \
+        } \
+        TYPE_CASTER(name, #name); \
+    };
+
+TYPE_CASTER_PYTYPE(object)
+TYPE_CASTER_PYTYPE(buffer)
+TYPE_CASTER_PYTYPE(capsule)
+TYPE_CASTER_PYTYPE(dict)
+TYPE_CASTER_PYTYPE(float_)
+TYPE_CASTER_PYTYPE(int_)
+TYPE_CASTER_PYTYPE(list)
+TYPE_CASTER_PYTYPE(slice)
+TYPE_CASTER_PYTYPE(tuple)
+
+#undef TYPE_CASTER
+#undef TYPE_CASTER_NUMBER
+#undef TYPE_CASTER_PYTYPE
+
+NAMESPACE_END(detail)
+
+template <typename T> inline T cast(PyObject *object) {
+    detail::type_caster<typename mpl::normalize_type<T>::type> conv;
+    if (!conv.load(object, true))
+        throw cast_error("Unable to cast Python object to C++ type");
+    return conv;
+}
+
+template <typename T> inline object cast(const T &value, return_value_policy policy = return_value_policy::automatic, PyObject *parent = nullptr) {
+    if (policy == return_value_policy::automatic)
+        policy = std::is_pointer<T>::value ? return_value_policy::take_ownership : return_value_policy::copy;
+    return object(detail::type_caster<typename mpl::normalize_type<T>::type>::cast(value, policy, parent), false);
+}
+
+template <typename T> inline T handle::cast() { return pybind::cast<T>(m_ptr); }
+
+template <typename ... Args> inline object handle::call(Args&&... args_) {
+    const size_t size = sizeof...(Args);
+    std::array<PyObject *, size> args{
+        { detail::type_caster<typename mpl::normalize_type<Args>::type>::cast(
+            std::forward<Args>(args_), return_value_policy::automatic, nullptr)... }
+    };
+    bool fail = false;
+    for (auto result : args)
+        if (result == nullptr)
+            fail = true;
+    if (fail) {
+        for (auto result : args) {
+            Py_XDECREF(result);
+        }
+        throw cast_error("handle::call(): unable to convert input arguments to Python objects");
+    }
+    PyObject *tuple = PyTuple_New(size);
+    int counter = 0;
+    for (auto result : args)
+        PyTuple_SetItem(tuple, counter++, result);
+    PyObject *result = PyObject_CallObject(m_ptr, tuple);
+    Py_DECREF(tuple);
+    return object(result, false);
+}
+
+NAMESPACE_END(pybind)
+
+#endif /* __PYBIND_CAST */

include/pybind/common.h

+/*
+    pybind/common.h -- Basic macros
+
+    Copyright (c) 2015 Wenzel Jakob <wenzel@inf.ethz.ch>
+
+    All rights reserved. Use of this source code is governed by a
+    BSD-style license that can be found in the LICENSE file.
+*/
+
+#if !defined(__PYBIND_COMMON_H)
+#define __PYBIND_COMMON_H
+
+#if !defined(NAMESPACE_BEGIN)
+#define NAMESPACE_BEGIN(name) namespace name {
+#endif
+#if !defined(NAMESPACE_END)
+#define NAMESPACE_END(name) }
+#endif
+
+#if !defined(PYTHON_EXPORT)
+#if defined(WIN32)
+#define PYTHON_EXPORT __declspec(dllexport)
+#else
+#define PYTHON_EXPORT __attribute__ ((visibility("default")))
+#endif
+#endif
+
+#define PYTHON_PLUGIN(name) \
+    extern "C" PYTHON_EXPORT PyObject *PyInit_##name()
+
+#include <vector>
+#include <string>
+#include <stdexcept>
+#include <functional>
+#include <unordered_map>
+#include <iostream>
+#include <memory>
+
+/// Include Python header, disable linking to pythonX_d.lib on Windows in debug mode
+#if defined(_MSC_VER)
+#define HAVE_ROUND
+#pragma warning(push)
+#pragma warning(disable: 4510 4610 4512)
+#if _DEBUG
+#define _DEBUG_MARKER
+#undef _DEBUG
+#endif
+#endif
+#include <Python.h>
+#if defined(_MSC_VER)
+#if defined(_DEBUG_MARKER)
+#define _DEBUG
+#undef _DEBUG_MARKER
+#endif
+#pragma warning(pop)
+#endif
+
+NAMESPACE_BEGIN(pybind)
+
+typedef Py_ssize_t ssize_t;
+
+/// Approach used to cast a previously unknown C++ instance into a Python object
+enum class return_value_policy : int {
+    /** Automatic: copy objects returned as values and take ownership of objects
+        returned as pointers */
+    automatic = 0,
+    /** Reference the object and take ownership. Python will call the
+        destructor and delete operator when the reference count reaches zero */
+    take_ownership,
+    /** Reference the object, but do not take ownership (dangerous when C++ code
+        deletes it and Python still has a nonzero reference count) */
+    reference,
+    /** Reference the object, but do not take ownership. The object is considered
+        be owned by the C++ instance whose method or property returned it. The
+        Python object will increase the reference count of this 'parent' by 1 */
+    reference_internal,
+    /// Create a new copy of the returned object, which will be owned by Python
+    copy
+};
+
+/// Format strings for basic number types
+template <typename type> struct format_descriptor { };
+template<> struct format_descriptor<int8_t>   { static std::string value() { return "b"; }; };
+template<> struct format_descriptor<uint8_t>  { static std::string value() { return "B"; }; };
+template<> struct format_descriptor<int16_t>  { static std::string value() { return "h"; }; };
+template<> struct format_descriptor<uint16_t> { static std::string value() { return "H"; }; };
+template<> struct format_descriptor<int32_t>  { static std::string value() { return "i"; }; };
+template<> struct format_descriptor<uint32_t> { static std::string value() { return "I"; }; };
+template<> struct format_descriptor<int64_t>  { static std::string value() { return "q"; }; };
+template<> struct format_descriptor<uint64_t> { static std::string value() { return "Q"; }; };
+template<> struct format_descriptor<float>    { static std::string value() { return "f"; }; };
+template<> struct format_descriptor<double>   { static std::string value() { return "d"; }; };
+
+/// Information record describing a Python buffer object
+struct buffer_info {
+    void *ptr;
+    size_t itemsize;
+    std::string format; // for dense contents, this should be set to format_descriptor<T>::value
+    int ndim;
+    std::vector<size_t> shape;
+    std::vector<size_t> strides;
+
+    buffer_info(void *ptr, size_t itemsize, const std::string &format,
+                int ndim, const std::vector<size_t> &shape,
+                const std::vector<size_t> &strides)
+        : ptr(ptr), itemsize(itemsize), format(format), ndim(ndim),
+          shape(shape), strides(strides) {}
+};
+
+// C++ bindings of core Python exceptions
+struct stop_iteration    : public std::runtime_error { public: stop_iteration(const std::string &w="") : std::runtime_error(w)   {} };
+struct index_error       : public std::runtime_error { public: index_error(const std::string &w="")    : std::runtime_error(w)   {} };
+struct error_already_set : public std::exception     { public: error_already_set()                                               {} };
+/// Thrown when pybind::cast or handle::call fail due to a type casting error
+struct cast_error        : public std::runtime_error { public: cast_error(const std::string &w = "") : std::runtime_error(w) {} };
+
+NAMESPACE_BEGIN(detail)
+
+/// PyObject wrapper around generic types
+template <typename type, typename holder_type = std::unique_ptr<type>> struct instance {
+    PyObject_HEAD
+    type *value;
+    PyObject *parent;
+    bool owned : 1;
+    bool constructed : 1;
+    holder_type holder;
+};
+
+/// Additional type information which does not fit into the PyTypeObjet
+struct type_info {
+    PyTypeObject *type;
+    size_t type_size;
+    void (*init_holder)(PyObject *);
+    std::function<buffer_info *(PyObject *)> get_buffer;
+    std::vector<PyObject *(*)(PyObject *, PyTypeObject *)> implicit_conversions;
+};
+
+/// Internal data struture used to track registered instances and types 
+struct internals {
+    std::unordered_map<std::string, type_info> registered_types;
+    std::unordered_map<void *, PyObject *> registered_instances;
+};
+
+inline internals &get_internals();
+
+NAMESPACE_END(detail)
+NAMESPACE_END(pybind)
+
+#endif /* __PYBIND_COMMON_H */

include/pybind/mpl.h

+/*
+    pybind/mpl.h: Simple library for type manipulation and template metaprogramming
+
+    Copyright (c) 2015 Wenzel Jakob <wenzel@inf.ethz.ch>
+
+    All rights reserved. Use of this source code is governed by a
+    BSD-style license that can be found in the LICENSE file.
+*/
+
+#if !defined(__PYBIND_MPL_H)
+#define __PYBIND_MPL_H
+
+#include "common.h"
+#include <tuple>
+
+NAMESPACE_BEGIN(pybind)
+NAMESPACE_BEGIN(mpl)
+
+/// Index sequence for convenient template metaprogramming involving tuples
+template<size_t ...> struct index_sequence  { };
+template<size_t N, size_t ...S> struct make_index_sequence : make_index_sequence <N - 1, N - 1, S...> { };
+template<size_t ...S> struct make_index_sequence <0, S...> { typedef index_sequence<S...> type; };
+
+/// Helper template to strip away type modifiers
+template <typename T> struct normalize_type                       { typedef T type; };
+template <typename T> struct normalize_type<const T>              { typedef typename normalize_type<T>::type type; };
+template <typename T> struct normalize_type<T*>                   { typedef typename normalize_type<T>::type type; };
+template <typename T> struct normalize_type<T&>                   { typedef typename normalize_type<T>::type type; };
+template <typename T> struct normalize_type<T&&>                  { typedef typename normalize_type<T>::type type; };
+template <typename T, size_t N> struct normalize_type<const T[N]> { typedef typename normalize_type<T>::type type; };
+template <typename T, size_t N> struct normalize_type<T[N]>       { typedef typename normalize_type<T>::type type; };
+
+NAMESPACE_BEGIN(detail)
+
+/// Strip the class from a method type
+template <typename T> struct remove_class {};
+template <typename C, typename R, typename... A> struct remove_class<R (C::*)(A...)> { typedef R type(A...); };
+template <typename C, typename R, typename... A> struct remove_class<R (C::*)(A...) const> { typedef R type(A...); };
+
+/**
+ * \brief Convert a lambda function to a std::function
+ * From http://stackoverflow.com/questions/11893141/inferring-the-call-signature-of-a-lambda-or-arbitrary-callable-for-make-functio
+ */
+template <typename T> struct lambda_signature_impl {
+    using type = typename remove_class<
+        decltype(&std::remove_reference<T>::type::operator())>::type;
+};
+template <typename R, typename... A> struct lambda_signature_impl<R    (A...)> { typedef R type(A...); };
+template <typename R, typename... A> struct lambda_signature_impl<R (&)(A...)> { typedef R type(A...); };
+template <typename R, typename... A> struct lambda_signature_impl<R (*)(A...)> { typedef R type(A...); };
+template <typename T> using lambda_signature = typename lambda_signature_impl<T>::type;
+template <typename F> using make_function_type = std::function<lambda_signature<F>>;
+
+NAMESPACE_END(detail)
+
+template<typename F> detail::make_function_type<F> make_function(F &&f) {
+    return detail::make_function_type<F>(std::forward<F>(f)); }
+
+NAMESPACE_BEGIN(detail)
+
+struct void_type { };
+
+/// Helper functions for calling a function using a tuple argument while dealing with void/non-void return values
+template <typename RetType> struct tuple_dispatch {
+    typedef RetType return_type;
+    template<typename Func, typename Arg, size_t ... S> return_type operator()(const Func &f, Arg && args, index_sequence<S...>) {
+        return f(std::get<S>(std::forward<Arg>(args))...);
+    }
+};
+
+/// Helper functions for calling a function using a tuple argument (special case for void return values)
+template <> struct tuple_dispatch<void> {
+    typedef void_type return_type;
+    template<typename Func, typename Arg, size_t ... S> return_type operator()(const Func &f, Arg &&args, index_sequence<S...>) {
+        f(std::get<S>(std::forward<Arg>(args))...);
+        return return_type();
+    }
+};
+
+NAMESPACE_END(detail)
+
+/// For lambda functions delegate to their 'operator()'
+template <typename T> struct function_traits : public function_traits<typename detail::make_function_type<T>> { };
+
+/// Type traits for function pointers
+template <typename ReturnType, typename... Args>
+struct function_traits<ReturnType(*)(Args...)> {
+    enum {
+        nargs = sizeof...(Args),
+        is_method = 0,
+        is_const = 0
+    };
+    typedef std::function<ReturnType (Args...)>    f_type;
+    typedef detail::tuple_dispatch<ReturnType>     dispatch_type;
+    typedef typename dispatch_type::return_type    return_type;
+    typedef std::tuple<Args...>                    args_type;
+
+    template <size_t i> struct arg {
+        typedef typename std::tuple_element<i, args_type>::type type;
+    };
+
+    static f_type cast(ReturnType (*func)(Args ...)) { return func; }
+
+    static return_type dispatch(const f_type &f, args_type &&args) {
+        return dispatch_type()(f, std::move(args),
+            typename make_index_sequence<nargs>::type());
+    }
+};
+
+/// Type traits for ordinary methods
+template <typename ClassType, typename ReturnType, typename... Args>
+struct function_traits<ReturnType(ClassType::*)(Args...)> {
+    enum {
+        nargs = sizeof...(Args),
+        is_method = 1,
+        is_const = 0
+    };
+    typedef std::function<ReturnType(ClassType &, Args...)>  f_type;
+    typedef detail::tuple_dispatch<ReturnType>               dispatch_type;
+    typedef typename dispatch_type::return_type              return_type;
+    typedef std::tuple<ClassType&, Args...>                  args_type;
+
+    template <size_t i> struct arg {
+        typedef typename std::tuple_element<i, args_type>::type type;
+    };
+
+    static f_type cast(ReturnType (ClassType::*func)(Args ...)) { return std::mem_fn(func); }
+
+    static return_type dispatch(const f_type &f, args_type &&args) {
+        return dispatch_type()(f, std::move(args),
+            typename make_index_sequence<nargs+1>::type());
+    }
+};
+
+/// Type traits for const methods
+template <typename ClassType, typename ReturnType, typename... Args>
+struct function_traits<ReturnType(ClassType::*)(Args...) const> {
+    enum {
+        nargs = sizeof...(Args),
+        is_method = 1,
+        is_const = 1
+    };
+    typedef std::function<ReturnType (const ClassType &, Args...)>  f_type;
+    typedef detail::tuple_dispatch<ReturnType>                      dispatch_type;
+    typedef typename dispatch_type::return_type                     return_type;
+    typedef std::tuple<const ClassType&, Args...>                   args_type;
+
+    template <size_t i> struct arg {
+        typedef typename std::tuple_element<i, args_type>::type type;
+    };
+
+    static f_type cast(ReturnType (ClassType::*func)(Args ...) const) {
+        return std::mem_fn(func);
+    }
+
+    static return_type dispatch(const f_type &f, args_type &&args) {
+        return dispatch_type()(f, std::move(args),
+            typename make_index_sequence<nargs+1>::type());
+    }
+};
+
+/// Type traits for std::functions
+template <typename ReturnType, typename... Args>
+struct function_traits<std::function<ReturnType(Args...)>> {
+    enum {
+        nargs = sizeof...(Args),
+        is_method = 0,
+        is_const = 0
+    };
+    typedef std::function<ReturnType (Args...)>  f_type;
+    typedef detail::tuple_dispatch<ReturnType>   dispatch_type;
+    typedef typename dispatch_type::return_type  return_type;
+    typedef std::tuple<Args...>                  args_type;
+
+    template <size_t i> struct arg {
+        typedef typename std::tuple_element<i, args_type>::type type;
+    };
+
+    static f_type cast(const f_type &func) { return func; }
+
+    static return_type dispatch(const f_type &f, args_type &&args) {
+        return dispatch_type()(f, std::move(args),
+            typename make_index_sequence<nargs>::type());
+    }
+};
+
+NAMESPACE_END(mpl)
+NAMESPACE_END(pybind)
+
+#endif /* __PYBIND_MPL_H */

include/pybind/operators.h

+/*
+    pybind/operator.h: Metatemplates for operator overloading
+
+    Copyright (c) 2015 Wenzel Jakob <wenzel@inf.ethz.ch>
+
+    All rights reserved. Use of this source code is governed by a
+    BSD-style license that can be found in the LICENSE file.
+*/
+
+#if !defined(__PYBIND_OPERATOR)
+#define __PYBIND_OPERATOR
+
+#include "pybind.h"
+#include <type_traits>
+
+NAMESPACE_BEGIN(pybind)
+NAMESPACE_BEGIN(detail)
+
+/// Enumeration with all supported operator types
+enum op_id : int {
+    op_add, op_sub, op_mul, op_div, op_mod, op_divmod, op_pow,
+    op_lshift, op_rshift, op_and, op_xor, op_or, op_neg,
+    op_pos, op_abs, op_invert, op_int, op_long, op_float,
+    op_str, op_cmp, op_gt, op_ge, op_lt, op_le, op_eq, op_ne,
+    op_iadd, op_isub, op_imul, op_idiv, op_imod, op_ilshift,
+    op_irshift, op_iand, op_ixor, op_ior, op_complex, op_bool,
+    op_nonzero, op_repr, op_truediv
+};
+
+enum op_type : int {
+    op_l, /* base type on left */
+    op_r, /* base type on right */
+    op_u  /* unary operator */
+};
+
+struct self_t { };
+
+/// Type for an unused type slot
+struct undefined_t { };
+
+static const self_t self = self_t();
+
+/// Don't warn about an unused variable
+inline self_t __self() { return self; }
+
+/// base template of operator implementations
+template <op_id, op_type, typename B, typename L, typename R> struct op_impl { };
+
+/// Operator implementation generator
+template <op_id id, op_type ot, typename L, typename R> struct op_ {
+    template <typename base, typename holder> void execute(pybind::class_<base, holder> &class_, const char *doc, return_value_policy policy) const {
+        typedef typename std::conditional<std::is_same<L, self_t>::value, base, L>::type L_type;
+        typedef typename std::conditional<std::is_same<R, self_t>::value, base, R>::type R_type;
+        typedef op_impl<id, ot, base, L_type, R_type> op;
+        class_.def(op::name(), &op::execute, doc, policy);
+    }
+    template <typename base, typename holder> void execute_cast(pybind::class_<base, holder> &class_, const char *doc, return_value_policy policy) const {
+        typedef typename std::conditional<std::is_same<L, self_t>::value, base, L>::type L_type;
+        typedef typename std::conditional<std::is_same<R, self_t>::value, base, R>::type R_type;
+        typedef op_impl<id, ot, base, L_type, R_type> op;
+        class_.def(op::name(), &op::execute_cast, doc, policy);
+    }
+};
+
+#define PYBIND_BINARY_OPERATOR(id, rid, op, expr)                                      \
+template <typename B, typename L, typename R> struct op_impl<op_##id, op_l, B, L, R> { \
+    static char const* name() { return "__" #id "__"; }                                \
+    static auto execute(const L &l, const R &r) -> decltype(expr) { return (expr); }   \
+    static B execute_cast(const L &l, const R &r) { return B(expr); }                  \
+};                                                                                     \
+template <typename B, typename L, typename R> struct op_impl<op_##id, op_r, B, L, R> { \
+    static char const* name() { return "__" #rid "__"; }                               \
+    static auto execute(const L &l, const R &r) -> decltype(expr) { return (expr); }   \
+    static B execute_cast(const L &l, const R &r) { return B(expr); }                  \
+};                                                                                     \
+inline op_<op_##id, op_l, self_t, self_t> op(const self_t &, const self_t &) {         \
+    return op_<op_##id, op_l, self_t, self_t>();                                       \
+};                                                                                     \
+template <typename T> op_<op_##id, op_l, self_t, T> op(const self_t &, const T &) {    \
+    return op_<op_##id, op_l, self_t, T>();                                            \
+};                                                                                     \
+template <typename T> op_<op_##id, op_r, T, self_t> op(const T &, const self_t &) {    \
+    return op_<op_##id, op_r, T, self_t>();                                            \
+};
+
+#define PYBIND_INPLACE_OPERATOR(id, op, expr)                                          \
+template <typename B, typename L, typename R> struct op_impl<op_##id, op_l, B, L, R> { \
+    static char const* name() { return "__" #id "__"; }                                \
+    static auto execute(L &l, const R &r) -> decltype(expr) { return expr; }           \
+    static B execute_cast(L &l, const R &r) { return B(expr); }                        \
+};                                                                                     \
+template <typename T> op_<op_##id, op_l, self_t, T> op(const self_t &, const T &) {    \
+    return op_<op_##id, op_l, self_t, T>();                                            \
+};
+
+#define PYBIND_UNARY_OPERATOR(id, op, expr)                                            \
+template <typename B, typename L> struct op_impl<op_##id, op_u, B, L, undefined_t> {   \
+    static char const* name() { return "__" #id "__"; }                                \
+    static auto execute(const L &l) -> decltype(expr) { return expr; }                 \
+    static B execute_cast(const L &l) { return B(expr); }                              \
+};                                                                                     \
+inline op_<op_##id, op_u, self_t, undefined_t> op(const self_t &) {                    \
+    return op_<op_##id, op_u, self_t, undefined_t>();                                  \
+};
+
+PYBIND_BINARY_OPERATOR(sub,       rsub,         operator-,    l - r)
+PYBIND_BINARY_OPERATOR(add,       radd,         operator+,    l + r)
+PYBIND_BINARY_OPERATOR(mul,       rmul,         operator*,    l * r)
+PYBIND_BINARY_OPERATOR(truediv,   rtruediv,     operator/,    l / r)
+PYBIND_BINARY_OPERATOR(mod,       rmod,         operator%,    l % r)
+PYBIND_BINARY_OPERATOR(lshift,    rlshift,      operator<<,   l << r)
+PYBIND_BINARY_OPERATOR(rshift,    rrshift,      operator>>,   l >> r)
+PYBIND_BINARY_OPERATOR(and,       rand,         operator&,    l & r)
+PYBIND_BINARY_OPERATOR(xor,       rxor,         operator^,    l ^ r)
+PYBIND_BINARY_OPERATOR(eq,        eq,           operator==,   l == r)
+PYBIND_BINARY_OPERATOR(ne,        ne,           operator!=,   l != r)
+PYBIND_BINARY_OPERATOR(or,        ror,          operator|,    l | r)
+PYBIND_BINARY_OPERATOR(gt,        lt,           operator>,    l > r)
+PYBIND_BINARY_OPERATOR(ge,        le,           operator>=,   l >= r)
+PYBIND_BINARY_OPERATOR(lt,        gt,           operator<,    l < r)
+PYBIND_BINARY_OPERATOR(le,        ge,           operator<=,   l <= r)
+//PYBIND_BINARY_OPERATOR(pow,       rpow,         pow,          std::pow(l,  r))
+PYBIND_INPLACE_OPERATOR(iadd,     operator+=,   l += r)
+PYBIND_INPLACE_OPERATOR(isub,     operator-=,   l -= r)
+PYBIND_INPLACE_OPERATOR(imul,     operator*=,   l *= r)
+PYBIND_INPLACE_OPERATOR(idiv,     operator/=,   l /= r)
+PYBIND_INPLACE_OPERATOR(imod,     operator%=,   l %= r)
+PYBIND_INPLACE_OPERATOR(ilshift,  operator<<=,  l <<= r)
+PYBIND_INPLACE_OPERATOR(irshift,  operator>>=,  l >>= r)
+PYBIND_INPLACE_OPERATOR(iand,     operator&=,   l &= r)
+PYBIND_INPLACE_OPERATOR(ixor,     operator^=,   l ^= r)
+PYBIND_INPLACE_OPERATOR(ior,      operator|=,   l |= r)
+PYBIND_UNARY_OPERATOR(neg,        operator-,    -l)
+PYBIND_UNARY_OPERATOR(pos,        operator+,    +l)
+PYBIND_UNARY_OPERATOR(abs,        abs,          std::abs(l))
+PYBIND_UNARY_OPERATOR(invert,     operator~,    ~l)
+PYBIND_UNARY_OPERATOR(bool,       operator!,    !!l)
+PYBIND_UNARY_OPERATOR(int,        int_,         (int) l)
+PYBIND_UNARY_OPERATOR(float,      float_,       (double) l)
+
+#undef PYBIND_BINARY_OPERATOR
+#undef PYBIND_INPLACE_OPERATOR
+#undef PYBIND_UNARY_OPERATOR
+
+NAMESPACE_END(detail)
+
+using detail::self;
+
+NAMESPACE_END(pybind)
+
+#endif /* __PYBIND_OPERATOR */

include/pybind/pytypes.h

+/*
+    pybind/typeid.h: Convenience wrapper classes for basic Python types
+
+    Copyright (c) 2015 Wenzel Jakob <wenzel@inf.ethz.ch>
+
+    All rights reserved. Use of this source code is governed by a
+    BSD-style license that can be found in the LICENSE file.
+*/
+
+#if !defined(__PYBIND_PYTYPES_H)
+#define __PYBIND_PYTYPES_H
+
+#include "common.h"
+#include <utility>
+
+NAMESPACE_BEGIN(pybind)
+
+/* A few forward declarations */
+class object;
+class str;
+class object;
+class dict;
+NAMESPACE_BEGIN(detail)
+class accessor;
+NAMESPACE_END(detail)
+
+/// Holds a reference to a Python object (no reference counting)
+class handle {
+public:
+    handle() : m_ptr(nullptr) { }
+    handle(const handle &other) : m_ptr(other.m_ptr) { }
+    handle(PyObject *ptr) : m_ptr(ptr) { }
+    PyObject *ptr() { return m_ptr; }
+    const PyObject *ptr() const { return m_ptr; }
+    void inc_ref() const { Py_XINCREF(m_ptr); }
+    void dec_ref() const { Py_XDECREF(m_ptr); }
+    int ref_count() const { return (int) Py_REFCNT(m_ptr); }
+    inline detail::accessor operator[](handle key);
+    inline detail::accessor operator[](const char *key);
+    inline detail::accessor attr(handle key);
+    inline detail::accessor attr(const char *key);
+    inline pybind::str str() const;
+    template <typename T> T cast();
+    template <typename ... Args> object call(Args&&... args_);
+    operator bool() const { return m_ptr != nullptr; }
+protected:
+    PyObject *m_ptr;
+};
+
+/// Holds a reference to a Python object (with reference counting)
+class object : public handle {
+public:
+    object() { }
+    object(const object &o) : handle(o) { inc_ref(); }
+    object(const handle &h, bool borrowed) : handle(h) { if (borrowed) inc_ref(); }
+    object(PyObject *ptr, bool borrowed) : handle(ptr) { if (borrowed) inc_ref(); }
+    object(object &&other) { m_ptr = other.m_ptr; other.m_ptr = nullptr; }
+    ~object() { dec_ref(); }
+
+    object& operator=(object &other) {
+        Py_XINCREF(other.m_ptr);
+        Py_XDECREF(m_ptr);
+        m_ptr = other.m_ptr;
+        return *this;
+    }
+
+    object& operator=(object &&other) {
+        if (this != &other) {
+            PyObject *temp = m_ptr;
+            m_ptr = other.m_ptr;
+            other.m_ptr = nullptr;
+            Py_XDECREF(temp);
+        }
+        return *this;
+    }
+};
+
+NAMESPACE_BEGIN(detail)
+class accessor {
+public:
+    accessor(PyObject *obj, PyObject *key, bool attr)
+        : obj(obj), key(key), attr(attr) { Py_INCREF(key);  }
+    accessor(PyObject *obj, const char *key, bool attr)
+        : obj(obj), key(PyUnicode_FromString(key)), attr(attr) { }
+    accessor(const accessor &a) : obj(a.obj), key(a.key), attr(a.attr)
+        { Py_INCREF(key); }
+    ~accessor() { Py_DECREF(key); }
+
+    void operator=(accessor o) { operator=(object(o)); }
+
+    void operator=(const handle &h) {
+        if (attr) {
+            if (PyObject_SetAttr(obj, key, (PyObject *) h.ptr()) < 0)
+                throw std::runtime_error("Unable to set object attribute");
+        } else {
+            if (PyObject_SetItem(obj, key, (PyObject *) h.ptr()) < 0)
+                throw std::runtime_error("Unable to set object item");
+        }
+    }
+
+    operator object() const {
+        object result(attr ? PyObject_GetAttr(obj, key)
+                           : PyObject_GetItem(obj, key), false);
+        if (!result) PyErr_Clear();
+        return result;
+    }
+
+    operator bool() const {
+        if (attr) {
+            return (bool) PyObject_HasAttr(obj, key);
+        } else {
+            object result(PyObject_GetItem(obj, key), false);
+            if (!result) PyErr_Clear();
+            return (bool) result;
+        }
+    };
+
+private:
+    PyObject *obj;
+    PyObject *key;
+    bool attr;
+};
+
+struct list_accessor {
+public:
+    list_accessor(PyObject *list, size_t index) : list(list), index(index) { }
+    void operator=(list_accessor o) { return operator=(object(o)); }
+    void operator=(const handle &o) {
+        o.inc_ref(); // PyList_SetItem steals a reference
+        if (PyList_SetItem(list, (ssize_t) index, (PyObject *) o.ptr()) < 0)
+            throw std::runtime_error("Unable to assign value in Python list!");
+    }
+    operator object() const {
+        PyObject *result = PyList_GetItem(list, (ssize_t) index);
+        if (!result)
+            throw std::runtime_error("Unable to retrieve value from Python list!");
+        return object(result, true);
+    }
+private:
+    PyObject *list;
+    size_t index;
+};
+
+struct tuple_accessor {
+public:
+    tuple_accessor(PyObject *tuple, size_t index) : tuple(tuple), index(index) { }
+    void operator=(tuple_accessor o) { return operator=(object(o)); }
+    void operator=(const handle &o) {
+        o.inc_ref(); // PyTuple_SetItem steals a reference
+        if (PyTuple_SetItem(tuple, (ssize_t) index, (PyObject *) o.ptr()) < 0)
+            throw std::runtime_error("Unable to assign value in Python tuple!");
+    }
+    operator object() const {
+        PyObject *result = PyTuple_GetItem(tuple, (ssize_t) index);
+        if (!result)
+            throw std::runtime_error("Unable to retrieve value from Python tuple!");
+        return object(result, true);
+    }
+private:
+    PyObject *tuple;
+    size_t index;
+};
+
+class list_iterator {
+public:
+    list_iterator(PyObject *list, ssize_t pos) : list(list), pos(pos) { }
+    list_iterator& operator++() { ++pos; return *this; }
+    object operator*() { return object(PyList_GetItem(list, pos), true); }
+    bool operator==(const list_iterator &it) const { return it.pos == pos; }
+    bool operator!=(const list_iterator &it) const { return it.pos != pos; }
+private:
+    PyObject *list;
+    ssize_t pos;
+};
+
+struct dict_iterator {
+public:
+    dict_iterator(PyObject *dict = nullptr, ssize_t pos = -1) : dict(dict), pos(pos) { }
+    dict_iterator& operator++() {
+        if (!PyDict_Next(dict, &pos, &key, &value))
+            pos = -1;
+        return *this;
+    }
+    std::pair<object, object> operator*() {
+        return std::make_pair(object(key, true), object(value, true));
+    }
+    bool operator==(const dict_iterator &it) const { return it.pos == pos; }
+    bool operator!=(const dict_iterator &it) const { return it.pos != pos; }
+private:
+    PyObject *dict, *key, *value;
+    ssize_t pos = 0;
+};
+
+NAMESPACE_END(detail)
+
+inline detail::accessor handle::operator[](handle key) { return detail::accessor(ptr(), key.ptr(), false); }
+inline detail::accessor handle::operator[](const char *key) { return detail::accessor(ptr(), key, false); }
+inline detail::accessor handle::attr(handle key) { return detail::accessor(ptr(), key.ptr(), true); }
+inline detail::accessor handle::attr(const char *key) { return detail::accessor(ptr(), key, true); }
+
+#define PYTHON_OBJECT(Name, Parent, CheckFun) \
+    Name(const handle &h, bool borrowed) : Parent(h, borrowed) { } \
+    Name(const object& o): Parent(o) { } \
+    Name(object&& o): Parent(std::move(o)) { } \
+    Name& operator=(object&& o) { return static_cast<Name&>(object::operator=(std::move(o))); } \
+    Name& operator=(object& o) { return static_cast<Name&>(object::operator=(o)); } \
+    bool check() const { return m_ptr != nullptr && (bool) CheckFun(m_ptr); }
+
+#define PYTHON_OBJECT_DEFAULT(Name, Parent, CheckFun) \
+    PYTHON_OBJECT(Name, Parent, CheckFun) \
+    Name() : object() { }
+
+class str : public object {
+public:
+    PYTHON_OBJECT_DEFAULT(str, object, PyUnicode_Check)
+    str(const char *s) : object(PyUnicode_FromString(s), false) { }
+    operator const char *() const { return PyUnicode_AsUTF8(m_ptr); }
+};
+
+inline pybind::str handle::str() const { return pybind::str(PyObject_Str(m_ptr), false); }
+inline std::ostream &operator<<(std::ostream &os, const object &obj) { os << (const char *) obj.str(); return os; }
+
+class bool_ : public object {
+public:
+    PYTHON_OBJECT_DEFAULT(bool_, object, PyBool_Check)
+    operator bool() const { return m_ptr && PyLong_AsLong(m_ptr) != 0; }
+};
+
+class int_ : public object {
+public:
+    PYTHON_OBJECT_DEFAULT(int_, object, PyLong_Check)
+    int_(int value) : object(PyLong_FromLong((long) value), false) { }
+    int_(size_t value) : object(PyLong_FromSize_t(value), false) { }
+    int_(ssize_t value) : object(PyLong_FromSsize_t(value), false) { }
+    operator int() const { return (int) PyLong_AsLong(m_ptr); }
+};
+
+class float_ : public object {
+public:
+    PYTHON_OBJECT_DEFAULT(float_, object, PyFloat_Check)
+    float_(float value) : object(PyFloat_FromDouble((double) value), false) { }
+    float_(double value) : object(PyFloat_FromDouble((double) value), false) { }
+    operator float() const { return (float) PyFloat_AsDouble(m_ptr); }
+    operator double() const { return (double) PyFloat_AsDouble(m_ptr); }
+};
+
+class slice : public object {
+public:
+    PYTHON_OBJECT_DEFAULT(slice, object, PySlice_Check)
+    slice(ssize_t start_, ssize_t stop_, ssize_t step_) {
+        int_ start(start_), stop(stop_), step(step_);
+        m_ptr = PySlice_New(start.ptr(), stop.ptr(), step.ptr());
+    }
+    bool compute(ssize_t length, ssize_t *start, ssize_t *stop, ssize_t *step, ssize_t *slicelength) const {
+        return PySlice_GetIndicesEx(m_ptr, length, start, stop, step, slicelength) == 0;
+    }
+};
+
+class capsule : public object {
+public:
+    PYTHON_OBJECT_DEFAULT(capsule, object, PyCapsule_CheckExact)
+    capsule(void *value) : object(PyCapsule_New(value, nullptr, nullptr), false) { }
+    template <typename T> operator T *() const {
+        T * result = static_cast<T *>(PyCapsule_GetPointer(m_ptr, nullptr));
+        if (!result) throw std::runtime_error("Unable to extract capsule contents!");
+        return result;
+    }
+};
+
+class tuple : public object {
+public:
+    PYTHON_OBJECT_DEFAULT(tuple, object, PyTuple_Check)
+    tuple(size_t size) : object(PyTuple_New((Py_ssize_t) size), false) { }
+    size_t size() const { return (size_t) PyTuple_Size(m_ptr); }
+    detail::tuple_accessor operator[](size_t index) { return detail::tuple_accessor(ptr(), index); }
+};
+
+class dict : public object {
+public:
+    PYTHON_OBJECT(dict, object, PyDict_Check)
+    dict() : object(PyDict_New(), false) { }
+    size_t size() const { return (size_t) PyDict_Size(m_ptr); }
+    detail::dict_iterator begin() { return (++detail::dict_iterator(ptr(), 0)); }
+    detail::dict_iterator end() { return detail::dict_iterator(); }
+};
+
+class list : public object {
+public:
+    PYTHON_OBJECT(list, object, PyList_Check)
+    list(size_t size = 0) : object(PyList_New((ssize_t) size), false) { }
+    size_t size() const { return (size_t) PyList_Size(m_ptr); }
+    detail::list_iterator begin() { return detail::list_iterator(ptr(), 0); }
+    detail::list_iterator end() { return detail::list_iterator(ptr(), (ssize_t) size()); }
+    detail::list_accessor operator[](size_t index) { return detail::list_accessor(ptr(), index); }
+    void append(const object &object) { PyList_Append(m_ptr, (PyObject *) object.ptr()); }
+};
+
+class buffer : public object {
+public:
+    PYTHON_OBJECT_DEFAULT(buffer, object, PyObject_CheckBuffer)
+
+    buffer_info request(bool writable = false) {
+        int flags = PyBUF_STRIDES | PyBUF_FORMAT;
+        if (writable) flags |= PyBUF_WRITABLE;
+        view = new Py_buffer();
+        if (PyObject_GetBuffer(m_ptr, view, flags) != 0)
+            throw error_already_set();
+        std::vector<size_t> shape(view->ndim), strides(view->ndim);
+        for (int i=0; i<view->ndim; ++i) {
+            shape[i] = (size_t) view->shape[i];
+            strides[i] = (size_t) view->strides[i];
+        }
+        return buffer_info(view->buf, view->itemsize, view->format,
+                           view->ndim, shape, strides);
+    }
+    ~buffer() { if (view) { PyBuffer_Release(view); delete view; } }
+private:
+    Py_buffer *view = nullptr;
+};
+
+NAMESPACE_BEGIN(detail)
+inline internals &get_internals() {
+    static internals *internals_ptr = nullptr;
+    if (internals_ptr)
+        return *internals_ptr;
+    handle builtins(PyEval_GetBuiltins());
+    capsule caps(builtins["__pybind__"]);
+    if (caps.check()) {
+        internals_ptr = caps;
+    } else {
+        internals_ptr = new internals();
+        builtins["__pybind__"] = capsule(internals_ptr);
+    }
+    return *internals_ptr;
+}
+NAMESPACE_END(detail)
+NAMESPACE_END(pybind)
+
+#endif /* __PYBIND_PYTYPES_H */

include/pybind/typeid.h

+/*
+    pybind/typeid.h: Compiler-independent access to type identifiers
+
+    Copyright (c) 2015 Wenzel Jakob <wenzel@inf.ethz.ch>
+
+    All rights reserved. Use of this source code is governed by a
+    BSD-style license that can be found in the LICENSE file.
+*/
+
+#if !defined(__PYBIND_TYPEID_H)
+#define __PYBIND_TYPEID_H
+
+#include "common.h"
+#include <cstdio>
+#include <cstdlib>
+#if defined(__GNUG__)
+#include <cxxabi.h>
+#endif
+
+NAMESPACE_BEGIN(pybind)
+NAMESPACE_BEGIN(detail)
+/// Erase all occurrences of a substring
+inline void erase_all(std::string &string, const std::string &search) {
+    for (size_t pos = 0;;) {
+        pos = string.find(search, pos);
+        if (pos == std::string::npos) break;
+        string.erase(pos, search.length());
+    }
+}
+NAMESPACE_END(detail)
+
+/// Return a string representation of a C++ type
+template <typename T> static std::string type_id() {
+    std::string name(typeid(T).name());
+    #if defined(__GNUG__)
+        int status = 0;
+        std::unique_ptr<char, void (*)(void *)> res {
+            abi::__cxa_demangle(name.c_str(), nullptr, nullptr, &status), std::free };
+        if (status == 0)
+            name = res.get();
+    #else
+        detail::erase_all(name, "class ");
+        detail::erase_all(name, "struct ");
+        detail::erase_all(name, "enum ");
+    #endif
+    detail::erase_all(name, "pybind::");
+    return name;
+}
+
+NAMESPACE_END(pybind)
+
+#endif /* __PYBIND_TYPEID_H */
+