video.py

# SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
# SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright contributors to the vLLM project
import math
from abc import abstractmethod
from io import BytesIO
from typing import Any, NamedTuple, cast

import numpy as np
import numpy.typing as npt

from vllm.logger import init_logger
from vllm.utils.import_utils import PlaceholderModule
from vllm.utils.registry import ExtensionManager

try:
    import cv2
    import cv2.videoio_registry as vr
except ImportError:
    cv2 = PlaceholderModule("cv2")
    vr = PlaceholderModule("cv2").placeholder_attr("videoio_registry")


logger = init_logger(__name__)


def resize_video(frames: npt.NDArray, size: tuple[int, int]) -> npt.NDArray:
    num_frames, _, _, channels = frames.shape
    new_height, new_width = size
    resized_frames = np.empty(
        (num_frames, new_height, new_width, channels), dtype=frames.dtype
    )

    for i, frame in enumerate(frames):
        resized_frame = cv2.resize(frame, (new_width, new_height))
        resized_frames[i] = resized_frame
    return resized_frames


def rescale_video_size(frames: npt.NDArray, size_factor: float) -> npt.NDArray:
    _, height, width, _ = frames.shape
    new_height = int(height * size_factor)
    new_width = int(width * size_factor)

    return resize_video(frames, (new_height, new_width))


def sample_frames_from_video(frames: npt.NDArray, num_frames: int) -> npt.NDArray:
    total_frames = frames.shape[0]
    if num_frames == -1:
        return frames

    frame_indices = np.linspace(0, total_frames - 1, num_frames, dtype=int)
    sampled_frames = frames[frame_indices, ...]
    return sampled_frames


class VideoTargetMetadata(NamedTuple):
    """Metadata represents target video."""

    num_frames: int
    fps: float
    max_duration: float


class VideoSourceMetadata(NamedTuple):
    """Metadata represents source video."""

    total_frames_num: int
    original_fps: float
    duration: float


class VideoLoader:
    @classmethod
    def compute_frames_index_to_sample(
        cls,
        source: VideoSourceMetadata,
        target: VideoTargetMetadata,
        **kwargs,
    ) -> list[int]:
        """Return the list of frame indices to sample from the video."""
        raise NotImplementedError

    @classmethod
    @abstractmethod
    def load_bytes(
        cls,
        data: bytes,
        **kwargs,
    ) -> tuple[npt.NDArray, dict[str, Any]]:
        """Load video frames from bytes and return (frames_array, metadata_dict)."""
        raise NotImplementedError

    @classmethod
    def create_hf_metadata(
        cls,
        source: VideoSourceMetadata,
        valid_frame_indices: list[int],
        video_backend: str,
    ):
        return {
            "total_num_frames": source.total_frames_num,
            "fps": source.original_fps,
            "duration": source.duration,
            "video_backend": video_backend,
            "frames_indices": valid_frame_indices,
            "do_sample_frames": len(valid_frame_indices) == source.total_frames_num,
        }


VIDEO_LOADER_REGISTRY = ExtensionManager()


class OpenCVVideoBackendMixin:
    @staticmethod
    def get_cv2_video_api():
        api_pref = None
        for backend in vr.getStreamBufferedBackends():
            if not vr.hasBackend(backend):
                continue
            if not vr.isBackendBuiltIn(backend):
                _, abi, api = vr.getStreamBufferedBackendPluginVersion(backend)
                if abi < 1 or (abi == 1 and api < 2):
                    continue
            api_pref = backend
            break
        return api_pref

    @classmethod
    def open_video_capture(cls, data: bytes) -> "cv2.VideoCapture":
        backend = cls.get_cv2_video_api()
        cap = cv2.VideoCapture(BytesIO(data), backend, [])
        if not cap.isOpened():
            raise ValueError("Could not open video stream")
        return cap

    @staticmethod
    def get_video_metadata(cap: "cv2.VideoCapture") -> VideoSourceMetadata:
        total_frames_num = int(cap.get(cv2.CAP_PROP_FRAME_COUNT))
        original_fps = cap.get(cv2.CAP_PROP_FPS)
        duration = total_frames_num / original_fps if original_fps > 0 else 0
        return VideoSourceMetadata(
            total_frames_num=total_frames_num,
            original_fps=original_fps,
            duration=duration,
        )

    @classmethod
    def _can_use_for_recovery(
        cls,
        idx: int,
        failed_frames: list[int],
        next_target_map: dict[int, int],
        total_frames: int,
    ) -> bool:
        """Check if current frame can recover the oldest failed frame."""
        if not failed_frames:
            return False
        oldest_failed = failed_frames[0]
        limit = next_target_map.get(oldest_failed, total_frames)
        return idx < limit

    @classmethod
    def _read_frames_with_recovery(
        cls,
        cap: "cv2.VideoCapture",
        frame_indices: list[int],
        total_frames: int,
    ) -> tuple[npt.NDArray, list[int], dict[int, int]]:
        """
        Read frames with dynamic window forward-scan recovery.

        When a target frame fails to load, the next successfully grabbed
        frame (before the next target frame) will be used to recover it.

        Args:
            cap: OpenCV VideoCapture object
            frame_indices: Sorted list of target frame indices to load
            total_frames: Total number of frames in the video

        Returns:
            Tuple of (frames_array, valid_frame_indices, recovered_map)
            - frames_array: Array of loaded frames
            - valid_frame_indices: List of frame indices that were loaded
            - recovered_map: Dict mapping recovered_idx -> source_idx
        """
        width = int(cap.get(cv2.CAP_PROP_FRAME_WIDTH))
        height = int(cap.get(cv2.CAP_PROP_FRAME_HEIGHT))

        assert width > 0 and height > 0, (
            f"Invalid video frame size: width={width}, height={height}"
        )

        frame_idx_set = set(frame_indices)
        max_frame_idx = frame_indices[-1] if frame_indices else 0

        # Build map: target_idx -> next_target_idx (for recovery window)
        next_target_map: dict[int, int] = {}
        for k in range(len(frame_indices) - 1):
            next_target_map[frame_indices[k]] = frame_indices[k + 1]
        next_target_map[frame_indices[-1]] = total_frames

        frames_list: list[npt.NDArray] = []
        valid_frame_indices: list[int] = []
        failed_frames_idx: list[int] = []
        recovered_map: dict[int, int] = {}

        i = 0
        for idx in range(max_frame_idx + 1):
            is_target_frame = idx in frame_idx_set

            # Attempt to grab the current frame
            ok = cap.grab()

            if not ok:
                if is_target_frame:
                    logger.warning(
                        "Failed to grab frame %d during video loading.",
                        idx,
                    )
                    failed_frames_idx.append(idx)
                continue

            # Check if we should retrieve: target frame OR can recover a failed one
            can_recover = cls._can_use_for_recovery(
                idx, failed_frames_idx, next_target_map, total_frames
            )

            if is_target_frame or can_recover:
                ret, frame = cap.retrieve()

                if ret and frame is not None and frame.size > 0:
                    rgb_frame = cv2.cvtColor(frame, cv2.COLOR_BGR2RGB)
                    frames_list.append(rgb_frame)
                    valid_frame_indices.append(idx)
                    i += 1

                    if can_recover:
                        recovered_idx = failed_frames_idx.pop(0)
                        recovered_map[recovered_idx] = idx
                        logger.info(
                            "Recovered frame %d using frame %d (delay: %d)",
                            recovered_idx,
                            idx,
                            idx - recovered_idx,
                        )
                elif is_target_frame:
                    logger.warning(
                        "Failed to retrieve frame %d during video loading.",
                        idx,
                    )
                    failed_frames_idx.append(idx)

        # Log any remaining failed frames
        for failed_idx in failed_frames_idx:
            logger.warning(
                "Frame %d could not be recovered (end of video).",
                failed_idx,
            )

        # Stack frames
        if frames_list:
            frames = np.stack(frames_list)
        else:
            frames = np.empty((0, height, width, 3), dtype=np.uint8)

        return frames, valid_frame_indices, recovered_map

    @classmethod
    def _read_frames_no_recovery(
        cls,
        cap,
        frame_indices: set[int],
        max_frame_idx: int,
    ) -> tuple[npt.NDArray, list[int]]:
        num_expected_frames = len(frame_indices)
        width = int(cap.get(cv2.CAP_PROP_FRAME_WIDTH))
        height = int(cap.get(cv2.CAP_PROP_FRAME_HEIGHT))
        frames = np.empty((num_expected_frames, height, width, 3), dtype=np.uint8)

        i = 0
        valid_frame_indices = []
        for idx in range(max_frame_idx + 1):
            ok = cap.grab()
            if not ok:
                # Frame is broken/unreadable, log warning
                if idx in frame_indices:
                    logger.warning(
                        "Failed to grab frame %d during video loading. "
                        "This frame will be skipped.",
                        idx,
                    )
                continue
            if idx in frame_indices:
                ret, frame = cap.retrieve()
                if ret:
                    frames[i] = cv2.cvtColor(frame, cv2.COLOR_BGR2RGB)
                    valid_frame_indices.append(idx)
                    i += 1
                else:
                    # retrieve() failed even though grab() succeeded
                    logger.warning(
                        "Failed to retrieve frame %d during video loading. "
                        "This frame will be skipped.",
                        idx,
                    )

        valid_num_frames = len(valid_frame_indices)
        if valid_num_frames < num_expected_frames:
            logger.warning(
                "Video loading completed with %d broken/unreadable frames. "
                "Expected %d frames but only loaded %d frames.",
                num_expected_frames - valid_num_frames,
                num_expected_frames,
                valid_num_frames,
            )

        return frames[:valid_num_frames], valid_frame_indices

    @classmethod
    def read_frames(
        cls,
        cap: "cv2.VideoCapture",
        frame_idx: list[int],
        total_frames_num: int,
        *,
        frame_recovery: bool = False,
    ) -> tuple[npt.NDArray, list[int]]:
        if frame_recovery:
            num_frames_to_sample = len(frame_idx)
            frames, valid_frame_indices, recovered_map = cls._read_frames_with_recovery(
                cap, frame_idx, total_frames_num
            )

            if recovered_map:
                logger.info(
                    "Frame recovery: %d frames recovered using forward scan.",
                    len(recovered_map),
                )
        else:
            frame_idx_set = set(frame_idx)
            num_frames_to_sample = len(frame_idx_set)
            frames, valid_frame_indices = cls._read_frames_no_recovery(
                cap, frame_idx_set, max(frame_idx)
            )
        valid_num_frames = len(valid_frame_indices)
        if valid_num_frames < num_frames_to_sample:
            logger.warning(
                "Video loading completed with %d broken/unreadable frames. "
                "Expected to sample %d frames but only loaded %d frames.",
                num_frames_to_sample - valid_num_frames,
                num_frames_to_sample,
                valid_num_frames,
            )
        return frames, valid_frame_indices


@VIDEO_LOADER_REGISTRY.register("opencv")
class OpenCVVideoBackend(VideoLoader, OpenCVVideoBackendMixin):
    @classmethod
    def compute_frames_index_to_sample(
        cls,
        source: VideoSourceMetadata,
        target: VideoTargetMetadata,
        **kwargs,
    ) -> list[int]:
        total_frames_num = source.total_frames_num
        duration = source.duration

        num_frames = target.num_frames
        fps = target.fps
        # resample video to target num_frames and fps
        # - the minimum of the two will be used
        num_frames_to_sample = total_frames_num
        if num_frames > 0:
            num_frames_to_sample = min(num_frames, total_frames_num)
        if fps > 0:
            num_frames_to_sample = min(num_frames_to_sample, math.floor(duration * fps))
        num_frames_to_sample = max(1, num_frames_to_sample)  # at least one sample

        if num_frames_to_sample == total_frames_num:
            frame_idx = list(range(0, num_frames_to_sample))
        else:
            uniform_sampled_frames = np.linspace(
                0, total_frames_num - 1, num_frames_to_sample, dtype=int
            )
            frame_idx = uniform_sampled_frames.tolist()
        return frame_idx

    @classmethod
    def load_bytes(
        cls,
        data: bytes,
        num_frames: int = -1,
        fps: int = -1,
        max_duration: int = 300,
        frame_recovery: bool = False,
        **kwargs,
    ) -> tuple[npt.NDArray, dict[str, Any]]:
        """
        Load video frames from bytes.

        Args:
            data: Raw video bytes
            num_frames: Target number of frames to sample (-1 for all)
            fps: Target FPS for sampling (-1 for original)
            max_duration: Maximum duration (unused in base backend)
            frame_recovery: Enable forward-scan recovery for failed frames

        Returns:
            Tuple of (frames_array, metadata_dict)
        """
        cap = cls.open_video_capture(data)

        source = OpenCVVideoBackendMixin.get_video_metadata(cap)
        target = VideoTargetMetadata(
            num_frames=num_frames,
            fps=fps,
            max_duration=max_duration,
        )

        # resample video to target num_frames and fps
        # - the minimum of the two will be used
        frame_idx = cls.compute_frames_index_to_sample(
            source=source,
            target=target,
        )

        frames, valid_frame_indices = cls.read_frames(
            cap,
            frame_idx,
            total_frames_num=source.total_frames_num,
            frame_recovery=frame_recovery,
        )

        metadata = cls.create_hf_metadata(
            source=source,
            video_backend="opencv",
            valid_frame_indices=valid_frame_indices,
        )

        return frames, metadata


@VIDEO_LOADER_REGISTRY.register("opencv_dynamic")
class OpenCVDynamicVideoBackend(VideoLoader, OpenCVVideoBackendMixin):
    @classmethod
    def compute_frames_index_to_sample(
        cls,
        source: VideoSourceMetadata,
        target: VideoTargetMetadata,
        **kwargs,
    ) -> list[int]:
        total_frames_num = source.total_frames_num
        duration = source.duration
        original_fps = source.original_fps
        max_duration = target.max_duration
        fps = target.fps

        max_frame_idx = source.total_frames_num - 1
        # Refer to:
        # https://github.com/huggingface/transformers/blob/v4.55.4/src/transformers/models/glm4v/video_processing_glm4v.py#L103-L140
        frame_indices_list: list[int]
        if duration <= max_duration:
            n = int(math.floor(duration * fps))
            frame_indices_list = sorted(
                {
                    min(max_frame_idx, int(math.ceil(i * original_fps / fps)))
                    for i in range(n)
                }
            )
        else:
            num_samples = int(max_duration * fps)
            if num_samples >= total_frames_num:
                frame_indices_list = list(range(total_frames_num))
            else:
                target_seconds = np.linspace(0, duration, num_samples, endpoint=True)
                frame_indices_list = sorted(
                    {
                        min(max_frame_idx, int(math.ceil(t * original_fps)))
                        for t in target_seconds
                    }
                )
        return frame_indices_list

    @classmethod
    def load_bytes(
        cls,
        data: bytes,
        num_frames: int = -1,
        fps: int = 2,
        max_duration: int = 300,
        frame_recovery: bool = False,
        **kwargs,
    ) -> tuple[npt.NDArray, dict[str, Any]]:
        """
        Load video frames with dynamic sampling based on duration.

        Args:
            data: Raw video bytes
            num_frames: Not used in dynamic backend
            fps: Target FPS for sampling (default: 2)
            max_duration: Maximum video duration to process (default: 300s)
            frame_recovery: Enable forward-scan recovery for failed frames

        Returns:
            Tuple of (frames_array, metadata_dict)
        """
        cap = cls.open_video_capture(data)

        orig_source = OpenCVVideoBackendMixin.get_video_metadata(cap)
        max_frame_idx = orig_source.total_frames_num - 1
        duration = (
            orig_source.duration or round(max_frame_idx / orig_source.original_fps) + 1
        )

        # recompute source metadata with adjusted duration to ensure correct
        # sampling indices computation
        source = VideoSourceMetadata(
            total_frames_num=orig_source.total_frames_num,
            original_fps=orig_source.original_fps,
            duration=duration,
        )
        target = VideoTargetMetadata(
            num_frames=num_frames,
            fps=fps,
            max_duration=max_duration,
        )

        frame_indices_list = cls.compute_frames_index_to_sample(
            source=source,
            target=target,
        )

        frames, valid_frame_indices = cls.read_frames(
            cap,
            frame_indices_list,
            total_frames_num=source.total_frames_num,
            frame_recovery=frame_recovery,
        )

        metadata = cls.create_hf_metadata(
            source=source,
            video_backend="opencv_dynamic",
            valid_frame_indices=valid_frame_indices,
        )

        return frames, metadata


@VIDEO_LOADER_REGISTRY.register("molmo2")
class Molmo2VideoBackend(VideoLoader, OpenCVVideoBackendMixin):
    @classmethod
    def get_candidate_target_fps(
        cls,
        video_fps: float,
        sampling_fps: float,
        max_fps: float = 8.0,
    ) -> list[float]:
        """
        Return the subset of `video_fps` factors that remain multiples
        of `sampling_fps`.

        Examples:
            >>> get_candidate_target_fps(video_fps=6, sampling_fps=2)
            [2, 6]
            >>> get_candidate_target_fps(video_fps=5, sampling_fps=1)
            [1, 5]
            >>> get_candidate_target_fps(video_fps=2, sampling_fps=2)
            [2]
            >>> get_candidate_target_fps(video_fps=5, sampling_fps=2)
            Traceback (most recent call last):
                ...
            ValueError: sampling_fps=2 must divide video_fps=5 to produce
                consistent frame steps.
        """
        video_fps = int(video_fps)
        sampling_fps = int(sampling_fps)
        max_fps = int(max_fps)

        if sampling_fps is None:
            raise ValueError("sampling_fps must be provided")
        if video_fps <= 0 or sampling_fps <= 0:
            raise ValueError(
                "video_fps and sampling_fps must be positive "
                f"(got {video_fps}, {sampling_fps})"
            )
        if video_fps % sampling_fps != 0:
            raise ValueError(
                f"sampling_fps={sampling_fps} must divide video_fps={video_fps}."
            )

        candidates = []
        for candidate in range(sampling_fps, video_fps + 1, sampling_fps):
            if candidate > max_fps:
                break
            if video_fps % candidate == 0:
                candidates.append(float(candidate))

        return candidates

    @classmethod
    def get_target_fps(
        cls,
        video_fps: float,
        max_frames: int,
        total_frames: int,
        frame_sample_mode: str,
        candidate_target_fps: list[float],
    ) -> float | None:
        """
        Get the target fps that best spans the videoand has the most frames sampled
        """
        num_frames_sampled = 0
        selected_target_fps = None
        for target_fps in candidate_target_fps:
            step_size = max(int(video_fps / target_fps), 1)
            num_frames_sampled_at_fps = int(total_frames / step_size)
            if num_frames_sampled == 0:
                if (
                    "uniform" in frame_sample_mode
                    and num_frames_sampled_at_fps > max_frames
                ):
                    break
                selected_target_fps = target_fps
                num_frames_sampled = num_frames_sampled_at_fps

            else:
                # the candidate sampling fps increases so frame count can't decrease
                assert num_frames_sampled <= num_frames_sampled_at_fps
                if num_frames_sampled_at_fps > max_frames:
                    # choose the sampling fps that spans the video
                    continue

                elif num_frames_sampled_at_fps > num_frames_sampled:
                    # both are less than max_frames; choose the one with higher
                    # density of frames sampled
                    selected_target_fps = target_fps
                    num_frames_sampled = num_frames_sampled_at_fps
        return selected_target_fps

    @classmethod
    def get_frame_times_and_chosen_fps(
        cls,
        selected_target_fps: float | None,
        total_frames: int,
        max_frames: int,
        video_fps: float,
    ) -> tuple[float | None, npt.NDArray]:
        if selected_target_fps is None:
            frame_indices = np.linspace(
                0, total_frames, max_frames, endpoint=False, dtype=int
            )
        else:
            step_size = max(int(video_fps / selected_target_fps), 1)
            frame_indices = np.arange(0, total_frames, step_size)
        if len(frame_indices) > max_frames:
            frame_indices = frame_indices[:max_frames]
        return selected_target_fps, frame_indices

    @classmethod
    def sample_times(
        cls,
        duration: float,
        max_frames: int,
        frame_sample_mode: str,
        max_fps: int | None,
        candidate_target_fps: list[float] | None = None,
        **kwargs,
    ) -> npt.NDArray:
        if frame_sample_mode == "fps":
            assert candidate_target_fps is not None
            # Try larger and larger FPSs until we hit one that can't span the video
            sampling_fps = candidate_target_fps[0]
            for candidate_fps in candidate_target_fps[1:]:
                if max_frames / candidate_fps < duration:
                    break
                sampling_fps = candidate_fps
            times = np.arange(0, max_frames) / sampling_fps
            times = times[times < duration]
            return times
        elif frame_sample_mode == "uniform_last_frame":
            if max_fps is not None:
                max_duration = (
                    max_frames - 1
                ) / max_fps  # -1 to include the last frame
                if max_duration < duration:
                    times = np.linspace(
                        0, duration, num=max_frames, endpoint=True, dtype=np.float64
                    )
                else:
                    times = np.arange(0.0, stop=duration, step=1 / max_fps)
                    times = np.concatenate([times, [duration]], axis=0)
                    assert len(times) <= max_frames
            else:
                times = np.linspace(
                    0, duration, num=max_frames, endpoint=True, dtype=np.float64
                )
            return times
        else:
            raise NotImplementedError(frame_sample_mode)

    @classmethod
    def compute_frames_index_to_sample(
        cls,
        source: VideoSourceMetadata,
        target: VideoTargetMetadata,
        **kwargs,
    ):
        max_fps = kwargs.get("max_fps")
        frame_sample_mode = kwargs.get("frame_sample_mode")
        if frame_sample_mode is None:
            return list(range(0, source.total_frames_num))

        if frame_sample_mode not in {"uniform_last_frame", "fps"}:
            raise NotImplementedError(
                f"Unsupported frame_sample_mode: {frame_sample_mode}"
            )

        duration = source.duration
        video_fps = source.original_fps
        total_num_frames = source.total_frames_num
        num_frames = target.num_frames
        sampling_fps = target.fps

        if frame_sample_mode == "uniform_last_frame" and max_fps is not None:
            if total_num_frames <= 2:
                indices = np.arange(total_num_frames).astype(int)
            elif duration > (num_frames - 1) / max_fps:  # -1 to include the last frame
                # uniform fallback
                indices = np.linspace(
                    0,
                    total_num_frames - 1,
                    num=min(num_frames, total_num_frames),
                    endpoint=True,
                ).astype(int)
            else:
                float_indices = np.arange(
                    0.0,
                    stop=total_num_frames - 1,
                    step=float(video_fps / max_fps),
                )
                if np.round(float_indices[-1]) != total_num_frames - 1:
                    float_indices = np.concatenate(
                        [float_indices, [total_num_frames - 1]], axis=0
                    )
                indices = np.round(float_indices).astype(int)
                assert indices[-1] < total_num_frames
                assert len(float_indices) <= num_frames
        elif frame_sample_mode == "uniform_last_frame":
            indices = np.linspace(
                0,
                total_num_frames - 1,
                num=min(num_frames, total_num_frames),
                endpoint=True,
            ).astype(int)
        elif frame_sample_mode == "fps":
            candidate_target_fps = cls.get_candidate_target_fps(video_fps, sampling_fps)
            selected_target_fps = cls.get_target_fps(
                video_fps,
                num_frames,
                total_num_frames,
                frame_sample_mode,
                candidate_target_fps,
            )
            _, indices = cls.get_frame_times_and_chosen_fps(
                selected_target_fps,
                total_num_frames,
                num_frames,
                video_fps,
            )
        return indices.tolist()

    @classmethod
    def load_bytes_opencv(
        cls,
        data: bytes,
        frame_sample_mode: str | None = None,
        num_frames: int = -1,
        max_fps: int = 2,
        sampling_fps: int = 2,
        frame_recovery: bool = False,
        **kwargs,
    ) -> tuple[npt.NDArray, dict[str, Any]]:
        cap = cls.open_video_capture(data)

        source = OpenCVVideoBackendMixin.get_video_metadata(cap)
        target = VideoTargetMetadata(
            num_frames=num_frames,
            fps=sampling_fps,
            max_duration=source.duration,
        )

        frame_idx = cls.compute_frames_index_to_sample(
            source=source,
            target=target,
            frame_sample_mode=frame_sample_mode,
            max_fps=max_fps,
        )

        frames, valid_frame_indices = cls.read_frames(
            cap,
            frame_idx,
            total_frames_num=source.total_frames_num,
            frame_recovery=frame_recovery,
        )

        metadata = cls.create_hf_metadata(
            source=source,
            video_backend="opencv",
            valid_frame_indices=valid_frame_indices,
        )

        return frames, metadata

    @classmethod
    def load_bytes(
        cls,
        data: bytes,
        num_frames: int = -1,
        **kwargs,
    ) -> tuple[npt.NDArray, dict[str, Any]]:
        frame_sample_mode = cast(str | None, kwargs.pop("frame_sample_mode", None))
        max_fps = cast(int, kwargs.pop("max_fps", 2))
        sampling_fps = cast(int, kwargs.pop("sampling_fps", 2))
        out = cls.load_bytes_opencv(
            data,
            frame_sample_mode,
            num_frames,
            max_fps,
            sampling_fps,
            **kwargs,
        )
        return out


@VIDEO_LOADER_REGISTRY.register("nemotron_vl")
class NemotronVLVideoBackend(OpenCVVideoBackend):
    @classmethod
    def load_bytes(
        cls,
        data: bytes,
        num_frames: int = -1,
        fps: int = -1,
        max_duration: int = 300,
        frame_recovery: bool = False,
        **kwargs,
    ) -> tuple[npt.NDArray, dict[str, Any]]:
        frames, metadata = OpenCVVideoBackend.load_bytes(
            data,
            num_frames=num_frames,
            fps=fps,
            max_duration=max_duration,
            frame_recovery=frame_recovery,
            **kwargs,
        )

        metadata = dict(metadata)
        metadata["original_video_bytes"] = data

        return frames, metadata


@VIDEO_LOADER_REGISTRY.register("openpangu")
class OpenCVDynamicOpenPanguVideoBackend(VideoLoader, OpenCVVideoBackendMixin):
    @classmethod
    def compute_frames_index_to_sample(
        cls,
        source: VideoSourceMetadata,
        target: VideoTargetMetadata,
        **kwargs,
    ) -> list[int]:
        total_frames_num = source.total_frames_num
        original_fps = source.original_fps
        num_frames = target.num_frames
        fps = target.fps

        # The timestamp of the rightmost frame, cannot be used to calculate frame 0.
        if total_frames_num >= 1 and original_fps > 0:
            total_duration = (total_frames_num - 1) / original_fps
        else:
            total_duration = 0

        # `fps` is the FPS parameter passed in for sampling,
        # -1 indicates that sampling can be performed directly without FPS limitation.
        if fps > 0:
            # Num_frames is the maximum number of frames to sample.
            # If fewer frames are sampled at this sample_fps, the update duration will be longer. # noqa: E501
            if num_frames >= int(total_duration * fps) + 1:
                num_frames = int(total_duration * fps) + 1
                # Under the new maximum frame rate, the video duration of the rightmost frame, # noqa: E501
                # cannot be calculated for frame 0.
                total_duration = min(total_duration, (num_frames - 1) / fps)
        elif fps != -1:
            raise ValueError(
                f"requires dataset fps is -1 or greater than 0 but got {fps}"
            )

        sample_frame_timestamps = np.linspace(
            0, total_duration, num_frames, dtype=float
        )
        frames_indices = [
            min(total_frames_num - 1, round(t * original_fps))
            for t in sample_frame_timestamps
        ]
        return frames_indices

    @classmethod
    def load_bytes(
        cls,
        data: bytes,
        num_frames: int = -1,
        fps: int = 2,
        max_duration: int = 300,
        frame_recovery: bool = False,
        **kwargs,
    ) -> tuple[npt.NDArray, dict[str, Any]]:
        """
        Load video frames with dynamic sampling based on duration.

        Args:
            data: Raw video bytes
            num_frames: Not used in dynamic backend
            fps: Target FPS for sampling (default: 2)
            max_duration: Maximum video duration to process (default: 300s)
            frame_recovery: Enable forward-scan recovery for failed frames

        Returns:
            Tuple of (frames_array, metadata_dict)
        """
        cap = cls.open_video_capture(data)

        source = OpenCVVideoBackendMixin.get_video_metadata(cap)

        # recompute source metadata with adjusted duration to ensure correct
        # sampling indices computation
        target = VideoTargetMetadata(
            num_frames=num_frames,
            fps=fps,
            max_duration=max_duration,
        )

        frame_indices_list = cls.compute_frames_index_to_sample(
            source=source,
            target=target,
        )

        frames, valid_frame_indices = cls.read_frames(
            cap,
            frame_indices_list,
            total_frames_num=source.total_frames_num,
            frame_recovery=frame_recovery,
        )

        # Use transformers.video_utils.VideoMetadata format
        metadata = cls.create_hf_metadata(
            source=source,
            video_backend="opencv_dynamic",
            valid_frame_indices=valid_frame_indices,
        )
        return frames, metadata