/*!
 * Copyright (c) 2021 Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved.
 * Licensed under the MIT License. See LICENSE file in the project root for
 * license information.
 * Modifications Copyright(C) 2023 Advanced Micro Devices, Inc. All rights reserved.
 */

#if defined(USE_CUDA) || defined(USE_ROCM)

#include "cuda_best_split_finder.hpp"

#include <LightGBM/cuda/cuda_algorithms.hpp>
#include <LightGBM/cuda/cuda_rocm_interop.h>

#include <algorithm>

namespace LightGBM {

__device__ void ReduceBestGainWarp(double gain, bool found, uint32_t thread_index, double* out_gain, bool* out_found, uint32_t* out_thread_index) {
  const uint32_t mask = 0xffffffff;
  const uint32_t warpLane = threadIdx.x % warpSize;
  for (uint32_t offset = warpSize / 2; offset > 0; offset >>= 1) {
    const bool other_found = __shfl_down_sync(mask, found, offset);
    const double other_gain = __shfl_down_sync(mask, gain, offset);
    const uint32_t other_thread_index = __shfl_down_sync(mask, thread_index, offset);
    if ((other_found && found && other_gain > gain) || (!found && other_found)) {
      found = other_found;
      gain = other_gain;
      thread_index = other_thread_index;
    }
  }
  if (warpLane == 0) {
    *out_gain = gain;
    *out_found = found;
    *out_thread_index = thread_index;
  }
}

__device__ uint32_t ReduceBestGainBlock(double gain, bool found, uint32_t thread_index) {
  const uint32_t mask = 0xffffffff;
  for (uint32_t offset = warpSize / 2; offset > 0; offset >>= 1) {
    const bool other_found = __shfl_down_sync(mask, found, offset);
    const double other_gain = __shfl_down_sync(mask, gain, offset);
    const uint32_t other_thread_index = __shfl_down_sync(mask, thread_index, offset);
    if ((other_found && found && other_gain > gain) || (!found && other_found)) {
      found = other_found;
      gain = other_gain;
      thread_index = other_thread_index;
    }
  }
  return thread_index;
}

__device__ uint32_t ReduceBestGain(double gain, bool found, uint32_t thread_index,
    double* shared_gain_buffer, bool* shared_found_buffer, uint32_t* shared_thread_index_buffer) {
  const uint32_t warpID = threadIdx.x / warpSize;
  const uint32_t warpLane = threadIdx.x % warpSize;
  const uint32_t num_warp = blockDim.x / warpSize;
  ReduceBestGainWarp(gain, found, thread_index, shared_gain_buffer + warpID, shared_found_buffer + warpID, shared_thread_index_buffer + warpID);
  __syncthreads();
  if (warpID == 0) {
    gain = warpLane < num_warp ? shared_gain_buffer[warpLane] : kMinScore;
    found = warpLane < num_warp ? shared_found_buffer[warpLane] : false;
    thread_index = warpLane < num_warp ? shared_thread_index_buffer[warpLane] : 0;
    thread_index = ReduceBestGainBlock(gain, found, thread_index);
  }
  return thread_index;
}

__device__ void ReduceBestGainForLeaves(double* gain, int* leaves, int cuda_cur_num_leaves) {
  const unsigned int tid = threadIdx.x;
  for (unsigned int s = 1; s < cuda_cur_num_leaves; s *= 2) {
    if (tid % (2 * s) == 0 && (tid + s) < cuda_cur_num_leaves) {
      const uint32_t tid_s = tid + s;
      if ((leaves[tid] == -1 && leaves[tid_s] != -1) || (leaves[tid] != -1 && leaves[tid_s] != -1 && gain[tid_s] > gain[tid])) {
        gain[tid] = gain[tid_s];
        leaves[tid] = leaves[tid_s];
      }
    }
    __syncthreads();
  }
}

__device__ void ReduceBestGainForLeavesWarp(double gain, int leaf_index, double* out_gain, int* out_leaf_index) {
  const uint32_t mask = 0xffffffff;
  const uint32_t warpLane = threadIdx.x % warpSize;
  for (uint32_t offset = warpSize / 2; offset > 0; offset >>= 1) {
    const int other_leaf_index = __shfl_down_sync(mask, leaf_index, offset);
    const double other_gain = __shfl_down_sync(mask, gain, offset);
    if ((leaf_index != -1 && other_leaf_index != -1 && other_gain > gain) || (leaf_index == -1 && other_leaf_index != -1)) {
      gain = other_gain;
      leaf_index = other_leaf_index;
    }
  }
  if (warpLane == 0) {
    *out_gain = gain;
    *out_leaf_index = leaf_index;
  }
}

__device__ int ReduceBestGainForLeavesBlock(double gain, int leaf_index) {
  const uint32_t mask = 0xffffffff;
  for (uint32_t offset = warpSize / 2; offset > 0; offset >>= 1) {
    const int other_leaf_index = __shfl_down_sync(mask, leaf_index, offset);
    const double other_gain = __shfl_down_sync(mask, gain, offset);
    if ((leaf_index != -1 && other_leaf_index != -1 && other_gain > gain) || (leaf_index == -1 && other_leaf_index != -1)) {
      gain = other_gain;
      leaf_index = other_leaf_index;
    }
  }
  return leaf_index;
}

__device__ int ReduceBestGainForLeaves(double gain, int leaf_index, double* shared_gain_buffer, int* shared_leaf_index_buffer) {
  const uint32_t warpID = threadIdx.x / warpSize;
  const uint32_t warpLane = threadIdx.x % warpSize;
  const uint32_t num_warp = blockDim.x / warpSize;
  ReduceBestGainForLeavesWarp(gain, leaf_index, shared_gain_buffer + warpID, shared_leaf_index_buffer + warpID);
  __syncthreads();
  if (warpID == 0) {
    gain = warpLane < num_warp ? shared_gain_buffer[warpLane] : kMinScore;
    leaf_index = warpLane < num_warp ? shared_leaf_index_buffer[warpLane] : -1;
    leaf_index = ReduceBestGainForLeavesBlock(gain, leaf_index);
  }
  return leaf_index;
}

template <bool USE_RAND, bool USE_L1, bool USE_SMOOTHING, bool REVERSE>
__device__ void FindBestSplitsForLeafKernelInner(
  // input feature information
  const hist_t* feature_hist_ptr,
  // input task information
  const SplitFindTask* task,
  CUDARandom* cuda_random,
  // input config parameter values
  const double lambda_l1,
  const double lambda_l2,
  const double path_smooth,
  const data_size_t min_data_in_leaf,
  const double min_sum_hessian_in_leaf,
  const double min_gain_to_split,
  // input parent node information
  const double parent_gain,
  const double sum_gradients,
  const double sum_hessians,
  const data_size_t num_data,
  const double parent_output,
  // output parameters
  CUDASplitInfo* cuda_best_split_info) {
  const double cnt_factor = num_data / sum_hessians;
  const double min_gain_shift = parent_gain + min_gain_to_split;

  cuda_best_split_info->is_valid = false;

  hist_t local_grad_hist = 0.0f;
  hist_t local_hess_hist = 0.0f;
  double local_gain = 0.0f;
  bool threshold_found = false;
  uint32_t threshold_value = 0;
  __shared__ int rand_threshold;
  if (USE_RAND && threadIdx.x == 0) {
    if (task->num_bin - 2 > 0) {
      rand_threshold = cuda_random->NextInt(0, task->num_bin - 2);
    }
  }
  __shared__ uint32_t best_thread_index;
  __shared__ double shared_double_buffer[WARPSIZE];
  __shared__ bool shared_bool_buffer[WARPSIZE];
  __shared__ uint32_t shared_int_buffer[WARPSIZE];
  const unsigned int threadIdx_x = threadIdx.x;
  const bool skip_sum = REVERSE ?
    (task->skip_default_bin && (task->num_bin - 1 - threadIdx_x) == static_cast<int>(task->default_bin)) :
    (task->skip_default_bin && (threadIdx_x + task->mfb_offset) == static_cast<int>(task->default_bin));
  const uint32_t feature_num_bin_minus_offset = task->num_bin - task->mfb_offset;
  if (!REVERSE) {
    if (task->na_as_missing && task->mfb_offset == 1) {
      if (threadIdx_x < static_cast<uint32_t>(task->num_bin) && threadIdx_x > 0) {
        const unsigned int bin_offset = (threadIdx_x - 1) << 1;
        local_grad_hist = feature_hist_ptr[bin_offset];
        local_hess_hist = feature_hist_ptr[bin_offset + 1];
      }
    } else {
      if (threadIdx_x < feature_num_bin_minus_offset && !skip_sum) {
        const unsigned int bin_offset = threadIdx_x << 1;
        local_grad_hist = feature_hist_ptr[bin_offset];
        local_hess_hist = feature_hist_ptr[bin_offset + 1];
      }
    }
  } else {
    if (threadIdx_x >= static_cast<unsigned int>(task->na_as_missing) &&
      threadIdx_x < feature_num_bin_minus_offset && !skip_sum) {
      const unsigned int read_index = feature_num_bin_minus_offset - 1 - threadIdx_x;
      const unsigned int bin_offset = read_index << 1;
      local_grad_hist = feature_hist_ptr[bin_offset];
      local_hess_hist = feature_hist_ptr[bin_offset + 1];
    }
  }
  __syncthreads();
  if (!REVERSE && task->na_as_missing && task->mfb_offset == 1) {
    const hist_t sum_gradients_non_default = ShuffleReduceSum<hist_t>(local_grad_hist, shared_double_buffer, blockDim.x);
    __syncthreads();
    const hist_t sum_hessians_non_default = ShuffleReduceSum<hist_t>(local_hess_hist, shared_double_buffer, blockDim.x);
    if (threadIdx_x == 0) {
      local_grad_hist += (sum_gradients - sum_gradients_non_default);
      local_hess_hist += (sum_hessians - sum_hessians_non_default);
    }
  }
  if (threadIdx_x == 0) {
    local_hess_hist += kEpsilon;
  }
  local_gain = kMinScore;
  local_grad_hist = ShufflePrefixSum(local_grad_hist, shared_double_buffer);
  __syncthreads();
  local_hess_hist = ShufflePrefixSum(local_hess_hist, shared_double_buffer);
  if (REVERSE) {
    if (threadIdx_x >= static_cast<unsigned int>(task->na_as_missing) && threadIdx_x <= task->num_bin - 2 && !skip_sum) {
      const double sum_right_gradient = local_grad_hist;
      const double sum_right_hessian = local_hess_hist;
      const data_size_t right_count = static_cast<data_size_t>(__double2int_rn(sum_right_hessian * cnt_factor));
      const double sum_left_gradient = sum_gradients - sum_right_gradient;
      const double sum_left_hessian = sum_hessians - sum_right_hessian;
      const data_size_t left_count = num_data - right_count;
      if (sum_left_hessian >= min_sum_hessian_in_leaf && left_count >= min_data_in_leaf &&
        sum_right_hessian >= min_sum_hessian_in_leaf && right_count >= min_data_in_leaf &&
        (!USE_RAND || static_cast<int>(task->num_bin - 2 - threadIdx_x) == rand_threshold)) {
        double current_gain = CUDALeafSplits::GetSplitGains<USE_L1, USE_SMOOTHING>(
          sum_left_gradient, sum_left_hessian, sum_right_gradient,
          sum_right_hessian, lambda_l1,
          lambda_l2, path_smooth, left_count, right_count, parent_output);
        // gain with split is worse than without split
        if (current_gain > min_gain_shift) {
          local_gain = current_gain - min_gain_shift;
          threshold_value = static_cast<uint32_t>(task->num_bin - 2 - threadIdx_x);
          threshold_found = true;
        }
      }
    }
  } else {
    const uint32_t end = (task->na_as_missing && task->mfb_offset == 1) ? static_cast<uint32_t>(task->num_bin - 2) : feature_num_bin_minus_offset - 2;
    if (threadIdx_x <= end && !skip_sum) {
      const double sum_left_gradient = local_grad_hist;
      const double sum_left_hessian = local_hess_hist;
      const data_size_t left_count = static_cast<data_size_t>(__double2int_rn(sum_left_hessian * cnt_factor));
      const double sum_right_gradient = sum_gradients - sum_left_gradient;
      const double sum_right_hessian = sum_hessians - sum_left_hessian;
      const data_size_t right_count = num_data - left_count;
      if (sum_left_hessian >= min_sum_hessian_in_leaf && left_count >= min_data_in_leaf &&
        sum_right_hessian >= min_sum_hessian_in_leaf && right_count >= min_data_in_leaf &&
        (!USE_RAND || static_cast<int>(threadIdx_x + task->mfb_offset) == rand_threshold)) {
        double current_gain = CUDALeafSplits::GetSplitGains<USE_L1, USE_SMOOTHING>(
          sum_left_gradient, sum_left_hessian, sum_right_gradient,
          sum_right_hessian, lambda_l1,
          lambda_l2, path_smooth, left_count, right_count, parent_output);
        // gain with split is worse than without split
        if (current_gain > min_gain_shift) {
          local_gain = current_gain - min_gain_shift;
          threshold_value = (task->na_as_missing && task->mfb_offset == 1) ?
            static_cast<uint32_t>(threadIdx_x) :
            static_cast<uint32_t>(threadIdx_x + task->mfb_offset);
          threshold_found = true;
        }
      }
    }
  }
  __syncthreads();
  const uint32_t result = ReduceBestGain(local_gain, threshold_found, threadIdx_x, shared_double_buffer, shared_bool_buffer, shared_int_buffer);
  if (threadIdx_x == 0) {
    best_thread_index = result;
  }
  __syncthreads();
  if (threshold_found && threadIdx_x == best_thread_index) {
    cuda_best_split_info->is_valid = true;
    cuda_best_split_info->threshold = threshold_value;
    cuda_best_split_info->gain = local_gain;
    cuda_best_split_info->default_left = task->assume_out_default_left;
    if (REVERSE) {
      const double sum_right_gradient = local_grad_hist;
      const double sum_right_hessian = local_hess_hist - kEpsilon;
      const data_size_t right_count = static_cast<data_size_t>(__double2int_rn(sum_right_hessian * cnt_factor));
      const double sum_left_gradient = sum_gradients - sum_right_gradient;
      const double sum_left_hessian = sum_hessians - sum_right_hessian - kEpsilon;
      const data_size_t left_count = num_data - right_count;
      const double left_output = CUDALeafSplits::CalculateSplittedLeafOutput<USE_L1, USE_SMOOTHING>(sum_left_gradient,
        sum_left_hessian, lambda_l1, lambda_l2, path_smooth, left_count, parent_output);
      const double right_output = CUDALeafSplits::CalculateSplittedLeafOutput<USE_L1, USE_SMOOTHING>(sum_right_gradient,
        sum_right_hessian, lambda_l1, lambda_l2, path_smooth, right_count, parent_output);
      cuda_best_split_info->left_sum_gradients = sum_left_gradient;
      cuda_best_split_info->left_sum_hessians = sum_left_hessian;
      cuda_best_split_info->left_count = left_count;
      cuda_best_split_info->right_sum_gradients = sum_right_gradient;
      cuda_best_split_info->right_sum_hessians = sum_right_hessian;
      cuda_best_split_info->right_count = right_count;
      cuda_best_split_info->left_value = left_output;
      cuda_best_split_info->left_gain = CUDALeafSplits::GetLeafGainGivenOutput<USE_L1>(sum_left_gradient,
        sum_left_hessian, lambda_l1, lambda_l2, left_output);
      cuda_best_split_info->right_value = right_output;
      cuda_best_split_info->right_gain = CUDALeafSplits::GetLeafGainGivenOutput<USE_L1>(sum_right_gradient,
        sum_right_hessian, lambda_l1, lambda_l2, right_output);
    } else {
      const double sum_left_gradient = local_grad_hist;
      const double sum_left_hessian = local_hess_hist - kEpsilon;
      const data_size_t left_count = static_cast<data_size_t>(__double2int_rn(sum_left_hessian * cnt_factor));
      const double sum_right_gradient = sum_gradients - sum_left_gradient;
      const double sum_right_hessian = sum_hessians - sum_left_hessian - kEpsilon;
      const data_size_t right_count = num_data - left_count;
      const double left_output = CUDALeafSplits::CalculateSplittedLeafOutput<USE_L1, USE_SMOOTHING>(sum_left_gradient,
        sum_left_hessian, lambda_l1, lambda_l2, path_smooth, left_count, parent_output);
      const double right_output = CUDALeafSplits::CalculateSplittedLeafOutput<USE_L1, USE_SMOOTHING>(sum_right_gradient,
        sum_right_hessian, lambda_l1, lambda_l2, path_smooth, right_count, parent_output);
      cuda_best_split_info->left_sum_gradients = sum_left_gradient;
      cuda_best_split_info->left_sum_hessians = sum_left_hessian;
      cuda_best_split_info->left_count = left_count;
      cuda_best_split_info->right_sum_gradients = sum_right_gradient;
      cuda_best_split_info->right_sum_hessians = sum_right_hessian;
      cuda_best_split_info->right_count = right_count;
      cuda_best_split_info->left_value = left_output;
      cuda_best_split_info->left_gain = CUDALeafSplits::GetLeafGainGivenOutput<USE_L1>(sum_left_gradient,
        sum_left_hessian, lambda_l1, lambda_l2, left_output);
      cuda_best_split_info->right_value = right_output;
      cuda_best_split_info->right_gain = CUDALeafSplits::GetLeafGainGivenOutput<USE_L1>(sum_right_gradient,
        sum_right_hessian, lambda_l1, lambda_l2, right_output);
    }
  }
}

template <bool USE_RAND, bool USE_L1, bool USE_SMOOTHING, bool REVERSE, typename BIN_HIST_TYPE, typename ACC_HIST_TYPE, bool USE_16BIT_BIN_HIST, bool USE_16BIT_ACC_HIST>
__device__ void FindBestSplitsDiscretizedForLeafKernelInner(
  // input feature information
  const BIN_HIST_TYPE* feature_hist_ptr,
  // input task information
  const SplitFindTask* task,
  CUDARandom* cuda_random,
  // input config parameter values
  const double lambda_l1,
  const double lambda_l2,
  const double path_smooth,
  const data_size_t min_data_in_leaf,
  const double min_sum_hessian_in_leaf,
  const double min_gain_to_split,
  // input parent node information
  const double parent_gain,
  const int64_t sum_gradients_hessians,
  const data_size_t num_data,
  const double parent_output,
  // gradient scale
  const double grad_scale,
  const double hess_scale,
  // output parameters
  CUDASplitInfo* cuda_best_split_info) {
  const double sum_hessians = static_cast<double>(sum_gradients_hessians & 0x00000000ffffffff) * hess_scale;
  const double cnt_factor = num_data / sum_hessians;
  const double min_gain_shift = parent_gain + min_gain_to_split;

  cuda_best_split_info->is_valid = false;

  ACC_HIST_TYPE local_grad_hess_hist = 0;
  double local_gain = 0.0f;
  bool threshold_found = false;
  uint32_t threshold_value = 0;
  __shared__ int rand_threshold;
  if (USE_RAND && threadIdx.x == 0) {
    if (task->num_bin - 2 > 0) {
      rand_threshold = cuda_random->NextInt(0, task->num_bin - 2);
    }
  }
  __shared__ uint32_t best_thread_index;
  __shared__ double shared_double_buffer[WARPSIZE];
  __shared__ bool shared_bool_buffer[WARPSIZE];
  __shared__ uint32_t shared_int_buffer[2 * WARPSIZE];  // need 2 * WARPSIZE since the actual ACC_HIST_TYPE could be long int
  const unsigned int threadIdx_x = threadIdx.x;
  const bool skip_sum = REVERSE ?
    (task->skip_default_bin && (task->num_bin - 1 - threadIdx_x) == static_cast<int>(task->default_bin)) :
    (task->skip_default_bin && (threadIdx_x + task->mfb_offset) == static_cast<int>(task->default_bin));
  const uint32_t feature_num_bin_minus_offset = task->num_bin - task->mfb_offset;
  if (!REVERSE) {
    if (threadIdx_x < feature_num_bin_minus_offset && !skip_sum) {
      const unsigned int bin_offset = threadIdx_x;
      if (USE_16BIT_BIN_HIST && !USE_16BIT_ACC_HIST) {
        const int32_t local_grad_hess_hist_int32 = feature_hist_ptr[bin_offset];
        local_grad_hess_hist = (static_cast<int64_t>(static_cast<int16_t>(local_grad_hess_hist_int32 >> 16)) << 32) | (static_cast<int64_t>(local_grad_hess_hist_int32 & 0x0000ffff));
      } else {
        local_grad_hess_hist = feature_hist_ptr[bin_offset];
      }
    }
  } else {
    if (threadIdx_x >= static_cast<unsigned int>(task->na_as_missing) &&
      threadIdx_x < feature_num_bin_minus_offset && !skip_sum) {
      const unsigned int read_index = feature_num_bin_minus_offset - 1 - threadIdx_x;
      if (USE_16BIT_BIN_HIST && !USE_16BIT_ACC_HIST) {
        const int32_t local_grad_hess_hist_int32 = feature_hist_ptr[read_index];
        local_grad_hess_hist = (static_cast<int64_t>(static_cast<int16_t>(local_grad_hess_hist_int32 >> 16)) << 32) | (static_cast<int64_t>(local_grad_hess_hist_int32 & 0x0000ffff));
      } else {
        local_grad_hess_hist = feature_hist_ptr[read_index];
      }
    }
  }
  __syncthreads();
  local_gain = kMinScore;
  local_grad_hess_hist = ShufflePrefixSum<ACC_HIST_TYPE>(local_grad_hess_hist, reinterpret_cast<ACC_HIST_TYPE*>(shared_int_buffer));
  double sum_left_gradient = 0.0f;
  double sum_left_hessian = 0.0f;
  double sum_right_gradient = 0.0f;
  double sum_right_hessian = 0.0f;
  data_size_t left_count = 0;
  data_size_t right_count = 0;
  int64_t sum_left_gradient_hessian = 0;
  int64_t sum_right_gradient_hessian = 0;
  if (REVERSE) {
    if (threadIdx_x >= static_cast<unsigned int>(task->na_as_missing) && threadIdx_x <= task->num_bin - 2 && !skip_sum) {
      sum_right_gradient_hessian = USE_16BIT_ACC_HIST ?
        (static_cast<int64_t>(static_cast<int16_t>(local_grad_hess_hist >> 16)) << 32) | static_cast<int64_t>(local_grad_hess_hist & 0x0000ffff) :
        local_grad_hess_hist;
      sum_right_gradient = static_cast<double>(static_cast<int32_t>((sum_right_gradient_hessian & 0xffffffff00000000) >> 32)) * grad_scale;
      sum_right_hessian = static_cast<double>(static_cast<int32_t>(sum_right_gradient_hessian & 0x00000000ffffffff)) * hess_scale;
      right_count = static_cast<data_size_t>(__double2int_rn(sum_right_hessian * cnt_factor));
      sum_left_gradient_hessian = sum_gradients_hessians - sum_right_gradient_hessian;
      sum_left_gradient = static_cast<double>(static_cast<int32_t>((sum_left_gradient_hessian & 0xffffffff00000000)>> 32)) * grad_scale;
      sum_left_hessian = static_cast<double>(static_cast<int32_t>(sum_left_gradient_hessian & 0x00000000ffffffff)) * hess_scale;
      left_count = num_data - right_count;
      if (sum_left_hessian >= min_sum_hessian_in_leaf && left_count >= min_data_in_leaf &&
        sum_right_hessian >= min_sum_hessian_in_leaf && right_count >= min_data_in_leaf &&
        (!USE_RAND || static_cast<int>(task->num_bin - 2 - threadIdx_x) == rand_threshold)) {
        double current_gain = CUDALeafSplits::GetSplitGains<USE_L1, USE_SMOOTHING>(
          sum_left_gradient, sum_left_hessian + kEpsilon, sum_right_gradient,
          sum_right_hessian + kEpsilon, lambda_l1,
          lambda_l2, path_smooth, left_count, right_count, parent_output);
        // gain with split is worse than without split
        if (current_gain > min_gain_shift) {
          local_gain = current_gain - min_gain_shift;
          threshold_value = static_cast<uint32_t>(task->num_bin - 2 - threadIdx_x);
          threshold_found = true;
        }
      }
    }
  } else {
    if (threadIdx_x <= feature_num_bin_minus_offset - 2 && !skip_sum) {
      sum_left_gradient_hessian = USE_16BIT_ACC_HIST ?
        (static_cast<int64_t>(static_cast<int16_t>(local_grad_hess_hist >> 16)) << 32) | static_cast<int64_t>(local_grad_hess_hist & 0x0000ffff) :
        local_grad_hess_hist;
      sum_left_gradient = static_cast<double>(static_cast<int32_t>((sum_left_gradient_hessian & 0xffffffff00000000) >> 32)) * grad_scale;
      sum_left_hessian = static_cast<double>(static_cast<int32_t>(sum_left_gradient_hessian & 0x00000000ffffffff)) * hess_scale;
      left_count = static_cast<data_size_t>(__double2int_rn(sum_left_hessian * cnt_factor));
      sum_right_gradient_hessian = sum_gradients_hessians - sum_left_gradient_hessian;
      sum_right_gradient = static_cast<double>(static_cast<int32_t>((sum_right_gradient_hessian & 0xffffffff00000000) >> 32)) * grad_scale;
      sum_right_hessian = static_cast<double>(static_cast<int32_t>(sum_right_gradient_hessian & 0x00000000ffffffff)) * hess_scale;
      right_count = num_data - left_count;
      if (sum_left_hessian >= min_sum_hessian_in_leaf && left_count >= min_data_in_leaf &&
        sum_right_hessian >= min_sum_hessian_in_leaf && right_count >= min_data_in_leaf &&
        (!USE_RAND || static_cast<int>(threadIdx_x + task->mfb_offset) == rand_threshold)) {
        double current_gain = CUDALeafSplits::GetSplitGains<USE_L1, USE_SMOOTHING>(
          sum_left_gradient, sum_left_hessian + kEpsilon, sum_right_gradient,
          sum_right_hessian + kEpsilon, lambda_l1,
          lambda_l2, path_smooth, left_count, right_count, parent_output);
        // gain with split is worse than without split
        if (current_gain > min_gain_shift) {
          local_gain = current_gain - min_gain_shift;
          threshold_value = static_cast<uint32_t>(threadIdx_x + task->mfb_offset);
          threshold_found = true;
        }
      }
    }
  }
  __syncthreads();
  const uint32_t result = ReduceBestGain(local_gain, threshold_found, threadIdx_x, shared_double_buffer, shared_bool_buffer, shared_int_buffer);
  if (threadIdx_x == 0) {
    best_thread_index = result;
  }
  __syncthreads();
  if (threshold_found && threadIdx_x == best_thread_index) {
    cuda_best_split_info->is_valid = true;
    cuda_best_split_info->threshold = threshold_value;
    cuda_best_split_info->gain = local_gain;
    cuda_best_split_info->default_left = task->assume_out_default_left;
    const double left_output = CUDALeafSplits::CalculateSplittedLeafOutput<USE_L1, USE_SMOOTHING>(sum_left_gradient,
      sum_left_hessian, lambda_l1, lambda_l2, path_smooth, left_count, parent_output);
    const double right_output = CUDALeafSplits::CalculateSplittedLeafOutput<USE_L1, USE_SMOOTHING>(sum_right_gradient,
      sum_right_hessian, lambda_l1, lambda_l2, path_smooth, right_count, parent_output);
    cuda_best_split_info->left_sum_gradients = sum_left_gradient;
    cuda_best_split_info->left_sum_hessians = sum_left_hessian;
    cuda_best_split_info->left_sum_of_gradients_hessians = sum_left_gradient_hessian;
    cuda_best_split_info->left_count = left_count;
    cuda_best_split_info->right_sum_gradients = sum_right_gradient;
    cuda_best_split_info->right_sum_hessians = sum_right_hessian;
    cuda_best_split_info->right_sum_of_gradients_hessians = sum_right_gradient_hessian;
    cuda_best_split_info->right_count = right_count;
    cuda_best_split_info->left_value = left_output;
    cuda_best_split_info->left_gain = CUDALeafSplits::GetLeafGainGivenOutput<USE_L1>(sum_left_gradient,
      sum_left_hessian, lambda_l1, lambda_l2, left_output);
    cuda_best_split_info->right_value = right_output;
    cuda_best_split_info->right_gain = CUDALeafSplits::GetLeafGainGivenOutput<USE_L1>(sum_right_gradient,
      sum_right_hessian, lambda_l1, lambda_l2, right_output);
  }
}

template <bool USE_RAND, bool USE_L1, bool USE_SMOOTHING>
__device__ void FindBestSplitsForLeafKernelCategoricalInner(
  // input feature information
  const hist_t* feature_hist_ptr,
  // input task information
  const SplitFindTask* task,
  CUDARandom* cuda_random,
  // input config parameter values
  const double lambda_l1,
  const double lambda_l2,
  const double path_smooth,
  const data_size_t min_data_in_leaf,
  const double min_sum_hessian_in_leaf,
  const double min_gain_to_split,
  const double cat_smooth,
  const double cat_l2,
  const int max_cat_threshold,
  const int min_data_per_group,
  // input parent node information
  const double parent_gain,
  const double sum_gradients,
  const double sum_hessians,
  const data_size_t num_data,
  const double parent_output,
  // output parameters
  CUDASplitInfo* cuda_best_split_info) {
  __shared__ double shared_gain_buffer[WARPSIZE];
  __shared__ bool shared_found_buffer[WARPSIZE];
  __shared__ uint32_t shared_thread_index_buffer[WARPSIZE];
  __shared__ uint32_t best_thread_index;
  const double cnt_factor = num_data / sum_hessians;
  const double min_gain_shift = parent_gain + min_gain_to_split;
  double l2 = lambda_l2;

  double local_gain = min_gain_shift;
  bool threshold_found = false;

  cuda_best_split_info->is_valid = false;

  const int bin_start = 1 - task->mfb_offset;
  const int bin_end = task->num_bin - task->mfb_offset;
  const int threadIdx_x = static_cast<int>(threadIdx.x);

  __shared__ int rand_threshold;

  if (task->is_one_hot) {
    if (USE_RAND && threadIdx.x == 0) {
      rand_threshold = 0;
      if (bin_end > bin_start) {
        rand_threshold = cuda_random->NextInt(bin_start, bin_end);
      }
    }
    __syncthreads();
    if (threadIdx_x >= bin_start && threadIdx_x < bin_end) {
      const int bin_offset = (threadIdx_x << 1);
      const hist_t grad = feature_hist_ptr[bin_offset];
      const hist_t hess = feature_hist_ptr[bin_offset + 1];
      data_size_t cnt =
            static_cast<data_size_t>(__double2int_rn(hess * cnt_factor));
      if (cnt >= min_data_in_leaf && hess >= min_sum_hessian_in_leaf) {
        const data_size_t other_count = num_data - cnt;
        if (other_count >= min_data_in_leaf) {
          const double sum_other_hessian = sum_hessians - hess - kEpsilon;
          if (sum_other_hessian >= min_sum_hessian_in_leaf && (!USE_RAND || static_cast<int>(threadIdx_x) == rand_threshold)) {
            const double sum_other_gradient = sum_gradients - grad;
            double current_gain = CUDALeafSplits::GetSplitGains<USE_L1, USE_SMOOTHING>(
              sum_other_gradient, sum_other_hessian, grad,
              hess + kEpsilon, lambda_l1,
              l2, path_smooth, other_count, cnt, parent_output);
            if (current_gain > min_gain_shift) {
              local_gain = current_gain;
              threshold_found = true;
            }
          }
        }
      }
    }
    __syncthreads();
    const uint32_t result = ReduceBestGain(local_gain, threshold_found, threadIdx_x, shared_gain_buffer, shared_found_buffer, shared_thread_index_buffer);
    if (threadIdx_x == 0) {
      best_thread_index = result;
    }
    __syncthreads();
    if (threshold_found && threadIdx_x == best_thread_index) {
      cuda_best_split_info->is_valid = true;
      cuda_best_split_info->num_cat_threshold = 1;
      cuda_best_split_info->gain = local_gain - min_gain_shift;
      *(cuda_best_split_info->cat_threshold) = static_cast<uint32_t>(threadIdx_x + task->mfb_offset);
      cuda_best_split_info->default_left = false;
      const int bin_offset = (threadIdx_x << 1);
      const hist_t sum_left_gradient = feature_hist_ptr[bin_offset];
      const hist_t sum_left_hessian = feature_hist_ptr[bin_offset + 1];
      const data_size_t left_count = static_cast<data_size_t>(__double2int_rn(sum_left_hessian * cnt_factor));
      const double sum_right_gradient = sum_gradients - sum_left_gradient;
      const double sum_right_hessian = sum_hessians - sum_left_hessian;
      const data_size_t right_count = static_cast<data_size_t>(__double2int_rn(sum_right_hessian * cnt_factor));
      const double left_output = CUDALeafSplits::CalculateSplittedLeafOutput<USE_L1, USE_SMOOTHING>(sum_left_gradient,
        sum_left_hessian, lambda_l1, l2, path_smooth, left_count, parent_output);
      const double right_output = CUDALeafSplits::CalculateSplittedLeafOutput<USE_L1, USE_SMOOTHING>(sum_right_gradient,
        sum_right_hessian, lambda_l1, l2, path_smooth, right_count, parent_output);
      cuda_best_split_info->left_sum_gradients = sum_left_gradient;
      cuda_best_split_info->left_sum_hessians = sum_left_hessian;
      cuda_best_split_info->left_count = left_count;
      cuda_best_split_info->right_sum_gradients = sum_right_gradient;
      cuda_best_split_info->right_sum_hessians = sum_right_hessian;
      cuda_best_split_info->right_count = right_count;
      cuda_best_split_info->left_value = left_output;
      cuda_best_split_info->left_gain = CUDALeafSplits::GetLeafGainGivenOutput<USE_L1>(sum_left_gradient,
        sum_left_hessian, lambda_l1, l2, left_output);
      cuda_best_split_info->right_value = right_output;
      cuda_best_split_info->right_gain = CUDALeafSplits::GetLeafGainGivenOutput<USE_L1>(sum_right_gradient,
        sum_right_hessian, lambda_l1, l2, right_output);
    }
  } else {
    __shared__ double shared_value_buffer[NUM_THREADS_PER_BLOCK_BEST_SPLIT_FINDER];
    __shared__ int16_t shared_index_buffer[NUM_THREADS_PER_BLOCK_BEST_SPLIT_FINDER];
    __shared__ uint16_t shared_mem_buffer_uint16[WARPSIZE];
    __shared__ double shared_mem_buffer_double[WARPSIZE];
    __shared__ int used_bin;
    l2 += cat_l2;
    uint16_t is_valid_bin = 0;
    int best_dir = 0;
    double best_sum_left_gradient = 0.0f;
    double best_sum_left_hessian = 0.0f;
    if (threadIdx_x >= bin_start && threadIdx_x < bin_end) {
      const int bin_offset = (threadIdx_x << 1);
      const double hess = feature_hist_ptr[bin_offset + 1];
      if (__double2int_rn(hess * cnt_factor) >= cat_smooth) {
        const double grad = feature_hist_ptr[bin_offset];
        shared_value_buffer[threadIdx_x] = grad / (hess + cat_smooth);
        is_valid_bin = 1;
      } else {
        shared_value_buffer[threadIdx_x] = kMaxScore;
      }
    } else {
      shared_value_buffer[threadIdx_x] = kMaxScore;
    }
    shared_index_buffer[threadIdx_x] = threadIdx_x;
    __syncthreads();
    const int local_used_bin = ShuffleReduceSum<uint16_t>(is_valid_bin, shared_mem_buffer_uint16, blockDim.x);
    if (threadIdx_x == 0) {
      used_bin = local_used_bin;
    }
    __syncthreads();
    BitonicArgSort_1024<double, int16_t, true>(shared_value_buffer, shared_index_buffer, bin_end);
    __syncthreads();
    const int max_num_cat = min(max_cat_threshold, (used_bin + 1) / 2);

    if (USE_RAND) {
      rand_threshold = 0;
      const int max_threshold = max(min(max_num_cat, used_bin) - 1, 0);
      if (max_threshold > 0) {
        rand_threshold = cuda_random->NextInt(0, max_threshold);
      }
    }

    // left to right
    double grad = 0.0f;
    double hess = 0.0f;
    if (threadIdx_x < used_bin && threadIdx_x < max_num_cat) {
      const int bin_offset = (shared_index_buffer[threadIdx_x] << 1);
      grad = feature_hist_ptr[bin_offset];
      hess = feature_hist_ptr[bin_offset + 1];
    }
    if (threadIdx_x == 0) {
      hess += kEpsilon;
    }
    __syncthreads();
    double sum_left_gradient = ShufflePrefixSum<double>(grad, shared_mem_buffer_double);
    __syncthreads();
    double sum_left_hessian = ShufflePrefixSum<double>(hess, shared_mem_buffer_double);
    if (threadIdx_x < used_bin && threadIdx_x < max_num_cat) {
      const data_size_t left_count = static_cast<data_size_t>(__double2int_rn(sum_left_hessian * cnt_factor));
      const double sum_right_gradient = sum_gradients - sum_left_gradient;
      const double sum_right_hessian = sum_hessians - sum_left_hessian;
      const data_size_t right_count = num_data - left_count;
      if (sum_left_hessian >= min_sum_hessian_in_leaf && left_count >= min_data_in_leaf &&
        sum_right_hessian >= min_sum_hessian_in_leaf && right_count >= min_data_in_leaf &&
        (!USE_RAND || threadIdx_x == static_cast<int>(rand_threshold))) {
        double current_gain = CUDALeafSplits::GetSplitGains<USE_L1, USE_SMOOTHING>(
          sum_left_gradient, sum_left_hessian, sum_right_gradient,
          sum_right_hessian, lambda_l1,
          l2, path_smooth, left_count, right_count, parent_output);
        // gain with split is worse than without split
        if (current_gain > local_gain) {
          local_gain = current_gain;
          threshold_found = true;
          best_dir = 1;
          best_sum_left_gradient = sum_left_gradient;
          best_sum_left_hessian = sum_left_hessian;
        }
      }
    }
    __syncthreads();

    // right to left
    grad = 0.0f;
    hess = 0.0f;
    if (threadIdx_x < used_bin && threadIdx_x < max_num_cat) {
      const int bin_offset = (shared_index_buffer[used_bin - 1 - threadIdx_x] << 1);
      grad = feature_hist_ptr[bin_offset];
      hess = feature_hist_ptr[bin_offset + 1];
    }
    if (threadIdx_x == 0) {
      hess += kEpsilon;
    }
    __syncthreads();
    sum_left_gradient = ShufflePrefixSum<double>(grad, shared_mem_buffer_double);
    __syncthreads();
    sum_left_hessian = ShufflePrefixSum<double>(hess, shared_mem_buffer_double);
    if (threadIdx_x < used_bin && threadIdx_x < max_num_cat) {
      const data_size_t left_count = static_cast<data_size_t>(__double2int_rn(sum_left_hessian * cnt_factor));
      const double sum_right_gradient = sum_gradients - sum_left_gradient;
      const double sum_right_hessian = sum_hessians - sum_left_hessian;
      const data_size_t right_count = num_data - left_count;
      if (sum_left_hessian >= min_sum_hessian_in_leaf && left_count >= min_data_in_leaf &&
        sum_right_hessian >= min_sum_hessian_in_leaf && right_count >= min_data_in_leaf &&
        (!USE_RAND || threadIdx_x == static_cast<int>(rand_threshold))) {
        double current_gain = CUDALeafSplits::GetSplitGains<USE_L1, USE_SMOOTHING>(
          sum_left_gradient, sum_left_hessian, sum_right_gradient,
          sum_right_hessian, lambda_l1,
          l2, path_smooth, left_count, right_count, parent_output);
        // gain with split is worse than without split
        if (current_gain > local_gain) {
          local_gain = current_gain;
          threshold_found = true;
          best_dir = -1;
          best_sum_left_gradient = sum_left_gradient;
          best_sum_left_hessian = sum_left_hessian;
        }
      }
    }
    __syncthreads();

    const uint32_t result = ReduceBestGain(local_gain, threshold_found, threadIdx_x, shared_gain_buffer, shared_found_buffer, shared_thread_index_buffer);
    if (threadIdx_x == 0) {
      best_thread_index = result;
    }
    __syncthreads();
    if (threshold_found && threadIdx_x == best_thread_index) {
      cuda_best_split_info->is_valid = true;
      cuda_best_split_info->num_cat_threshold = threadIdx_x + 1;
      cuda_best_split_info->gain = local_gain - min_gain_shift;
      if (best_dir == 1) {
        for (int i = 0; i < threadIdx_x + 1; ++i) {
          (cuda_best_split_info->cat_threshold)[i] = shared_index_buffer[i] + task->mfb_offset;
        }
      } else {
        for (int i = 0; i < threadIdx_x + 1; ++i) {
          (cuda_best_split_info->cat_threshold)[i] = shared_index_buffer[used_bin - 1 - i] + task->mfb_offset;
        }
      }
      cuda_best_split_info->default_left = false;
      const hist_t sum_left_gradient = best_sum_left_gradient;
      const hist_t sum_left_hessian = best_sum_left_hessian;
      const data_size_t left_count = static_cast<data_size_t>(__double2int_rn(sum_left_hessian * cnt_factor));
      const double sum_right_gradient = sum_gradients - sum_left_gradient;
      const double sum_right_hessian = sum_hessians - sum_left_hessian;
      const data_size_t right_count = static_cast<data_size_t>(__double2int_rn(sum_right_hessian * cnt_factor));
      const double left_output = CUDALeafSplits::CalculateSplittedLeafOutput<USE_L1, USE_SMOOTHING>(sum_left_gradient,
        sum_left_hessian, lambda_l1, l2, path_smooth, left_count, parent_output);
      const double right_output = CUDALeafSplits::CalculateSplittedLeafOutput<USE_L1, USE_SMOOTHING>(sum_right_gradient,
        sum_right_hessian, lambda_l1, l2, path_smooth, right_count, parent_output);
      cuda_best_split_info->left_sum_gradients = sum_left_gradient;
      cuda_best_split_info->left_sum_hessians = sum_left_hessian;
      cuda_best_split_info->left_count = left_count;
      cuda_best_split_info->right_sum_gradients = sum_right_gradient;
      cuda_best_split_info->right_sum_hessians = sum_right_hessian;
      cuda_best_split_info->right_count = right_count;
      cuda_best_split_info->left_value = left_output;
      cuda_best_split_info->left_gain = CUDALeafSplits::GetLeafGainGivenOutput<USE_L1>(sum_left_gradient,
        sum_left_hessian, lambda_l1, l2, left_output);
      cuda_best_split_info->right_value = right_output;
      cuda_best_split_info->right_gain = CUDALeafSplits::GetLeafGainGivenOutput<USE_L1>(sum_right_gradient,
        sum_right_hessian, lambda_l1, l2, right_output);
    }
  }
}

template <bool USE_RAND, bool USE_L1, bool USE_SMOOTHING, bool IS_LARGER>
__global__ void FindBestSplitsForLeafKernel(
  // input feature information
  const int8_t* is_feature_used_bytree,
  // input task information
  const int num_tasks,
  const SplitFindTask* tasks,
  CUDARandom* cuda_randoms,
  // input leaf information
  const CUDALeafSplitsStruct* smaller_leaf_splits,
  const CUDALeafSplitsStruct* larger_leaf_splits,
  // input config parameter values
  const data_size_t min_data_in_leaf,
  const double min_sum_hessian_in_leaf,
  const double min_gain_to_split,
  const double lambda_l1,
  const double lambda_l2,
  const double path_smooth,
  const double cat_smooth,
  const double cat_l2,
  const int max_cat_threshold,
  const int min_data_per_group,
  // output
  CUDASplitInfo* cuda_best_split_info) {
  const unsigned int task_index = blockIdx.x;
  const SplitFindTask* task = tasks + task_index;
  const int inner_feature_index = task->inner_feature_index;
  const double parent_gain = IS_LARGER ? larger_leaf_splits->gain : smaller_leaf_splits->gain;
  const double sum_gradients = IS_LARGER ? larger_leaf_splits->sum_of_gradients : smaller_leaf_splits->sum_of_gradients;
  const double sum_hessians = (IS_LARGER ? larger_leaf_splits->sum_of_hessians : smaller_leaf_splits->sum_of_hessians) + 2 * kEpsilon;
  const data_size_t num_data = IS_LARGER ? larger_leaf_splits->num_data_in_leaf : smaller_leaf_splits->num_data_in_leaf;
  const double parent_output = IS_LARGER ? larger_leaf_splits->leaf_value : smaller_leaf_splits->leaf_value;
  const unsigned int output_offset = IS_LARGER ? (task_index + num_tasks) : task_index;
  CUDASplitInfo* out = cuda_best_split_info + output_offset;
  CUDARandom* cuda_random = USE_RAND ?
    (IS_LARGER ? cuda_randoms + task_index * 2 + 1 : cuda_randoms + task_index * 2) : nullptr;
  if (is_feature_used_bytree[inner_feature_index]) {
    const hist_t* hist_ptr = (IS_LARGER ? larger_leaf_splits->hist_in_leaf : smaller_leaf_splits->hist_in_leaf) + task->hist_offset * 2;
    if (task->is_categorical) {
      FindBestSplitsForLeafKernelCategoricalInner<USE_RAND, USE_L1, USE_SMOOTHING>(
        // input feature information
        hist_ptr,
        // input task information
        task,
        cuda_random,
        // input config parameter values
        lambda_l1,
        lambda_l2,
        path_smooth,
        min_data_in_leaf,
        min_sum_hessian_in_leaf,
        min_gain_to_split,
        cat_smooth,
        cat_l2,
        max_cat_threshold,
        min_data_per_group,
        // input parent node information
        parent_gain,
        sum_gradients,
        sum_hessians,
        num_data,
        parent_output,
        // output parameters
        out);
    } else {
      if (!task->reverse) {
        FindBestSplitsForLeafKernelInner<USE_RAND, USE_L1, USE_SMOOTHING, false>(
          // input feature information
          hist_ptr,
          // input task information
          task,
          cuda_random,
          // input config parameter values
          lambda_l1,
          lambda_l2,
          path_smooth,
          min_data_in_leaf,
          min_sum_hessian_in_leaf,
          min_gain_to_split,
          // input parent node information
          parent_gain,
          sum_gradients,
          sum_hessians,
          num_data,
          parent_output,
          // output parameters
          out);
      } else {
        FindBestSplitsForLeafKernelInner<USE_RAND, USE_L1, USE_SMOOTHING, true>(
          // input feature information
          hist_ptr,
          // input task information
          task,
          cuda_random,
          // input config parameter values
          lambda_l1,
          lambda_l2,
          path_smooth,
          min_data_in_leaf,
          min_sum_hessian_in_leaf,
          min_gain_to_split,
          // input parent node information
          parent_gain,
          sum_gradients,
          sum_hessians,
          num_data,
          parent_output,
          // output parameters
          out);
      }
    }
  } else {
    out->is_valid = false;
  }
}


template <bool USE_RAND, bool USE_L1, bool USE_SMOOTHING, bool IS_LARGER>
__global__ void FindBestSplitsDiscretizedForLeafKernel(
  // input feature information
  const int8_t* is_feature_used_bytree,
  // input task information
  const int num_tasks,
  const SplitFindTask* tasks,
  CUDARandom* cuda_randoms,
  // input leaf information
  const CUDALeafSplitsStruct* smaller_leaf_splits,
  const CUDALeafSplitsStruct* larger_leaf_splits,
  const uint8_t smaller_leaf_num_bits_in_histogram_bin,
  const uint8_t larger_leaf_num_bits_in_histogram_bin,
  // input config parameter values
  const data_size_t min_data_in_leaf,
  const double min_sum_hessian_in_leaf,
  const double min_gain_to_split,
  const double lambda_l1,
  const double lambda_l2,
  const double path_smooth,
  const double cat_smooth,
  const double cat_l2,
  const int max_cat_threshold,
  const int min_data_per_group,
  const int max_cat_to_onehot,
  // gradient scale
  const score_t* grad_scale,
  const score_t* hess_scale,
  // output
  CUDASplitInfo* cuda_best_split_info) {
  const unsigned int task_index = blockIdx.x;
  const SplitFindTask* task = tasks + task_index;
  const int inner_feature_index = task->inner_feature_index;
  const double parent_gain = IS_LARGER ? larger_leaf_splits->gain : smaller_leaf_splits->gain;
  const int64_t sum_gradients_hessians = IS_LARGER ? larger_leaf_splits->sum_of_gradients_hessians : smaller_leaf_splits->sum_of_gradients_hessians;
  const data_size_t num_data = IS_LARGER ? larger_leaf_splits->num_data_in_leaf : smaller_leaf_splits->num_data_in_leaf;
  const double parent_output = IS_LARGER ? larger_leaf_splits->leaf_value : smaller_leaf_splits->leaf_value;
  const unsigned int output_offset = IS_LARGER ? (task_index + num_tasks) : task_index;
  CUDASplitInfo* out = cuda_best_split_info + output_offset;
  CUDARandom* cuda_random = USE_RAND ?
    (IS_LARGER ? cuda_randoms + task_index * 2 + 1 : cuda_randoms + task_index * 2) : nullptr;
  const bool use_16bit_bin = IS_LARGER ? (larger_leaf_num_bits_in_histogram_bin <= 16) : (smaller_leaf_num_bits_in_histogram_bin <= 16);
  if (is_feature_used_bytree[inner_feature_index]) {
    if (task->is_categorical) {
      __threadfence();  // ensure store issued before trap
#if defined(USE_CUDA)
      asm("trap;");
#elif defined(USE_ROCM)
      __builtin_trap();
#endif
    } else {
      if (!task->reverse) {
        if (use_16bit_bin) {
          const int32_t* hist_ptr =
            reinterpret_cast<const int32_t*>(IS_LARGER ? larger_leaf_splits->hist_in_leaf : smaller_leaf_splits->hist_in_leaf) + task->hist_offset;
          FindBestSplitsDiscretizedForLeafKernelInner<USE_RAND, USE_L1, USE_SMOOTHING, false, int32_t, int32_t, true, true>(
            // input feature information
            hist_ptr,
            // input task information
            task,
            cuda_random,
            // input config parameter values
            lambda_l1,
            lambda_l2,
            path_smooth,
            min_data_in_leaf,
            min_sum_hessian_in_leaf,
            min_gain_to_split,
            // input parent node information
            parent_gain,
            sum_gradients_hessians,
            num_data,
            parent_output,
            // gradient scale
            *grad_scale,
            *hess_scale,
            // output parameters
            out);
        } else {
          const int32_t* hist_ptr =
            reinterpret_cast<const int32_t*>(IS_LARGER ? larger_leaf_splits->hist_in_leaf : smaller_leaf_splits->hist_in_leaf) + task->hist_offset;
          FindBestSplitsDiscretizedForLeafKernelInner<USE_RAND, USE_L1, USE_SMOOTHING, false, int32_t, int64_t, false, false>(
            // input feature information
            hist_ptr,
            // input task information
            task,
            cuda_random,
            // input config parameter values
            lambda_l1,
            lambda_l2,
            path_smooth,
            min_data_in_leaf,
            min_sum_hessian_in_leaf,
            min_gain_to_split,
            // input parent node information
            parent_gain,
            sum_gradients_hessians,
            num_data,
            parent_output,
            // gradient scale
            *grad_scale,
            *hess_scale,
            // output parameters
            out);
        }
      } else {
        if (use_16bit_bin) {
          const int32_t* hist_ptr =
            reinterpret_cast<const int32_t*>(IS_LARGER ? larger_leaf_splits->hist_in_leaf : smaller_leaf_splits->hist_in_leaf) + task->hist_offset;
          FindBestSplitsDiscretizedForLeafKernelInner<USE_RAND, USE_L1, USE_SMOOTHING, true, int32_t, int32_t, true, true>(
            // input feature information
            hist_ptr,
            // input task information
            task,
            cuda_random,
            // input config parameter values
            lambda_l1,
            lambda_l2,
            path_smooth,
            min_data_in_leaf,
            min_sum_hessian_in_leaf,
            min_gain_to_split,
            // input parent node information
            parent_gain,
            sum_gradients_hessians,
            num_data,
            parent_output,
            // gradient scale
            *grad_scale,
            *hess_scale,
            // output parameters
            out);
        } else {
          const int32_t* hist_ptr =
            reinterpret_cast<const int32_t*>(IS_LARGER ? larger_leaf_splits->hist_in_leaf : smaller_leaf_splits->hist_in_leaf) + task->hist_offset;
          FindBestSplitsDiscretizedForLeafKernelInner<USE_RAND, USE_L1, USE_SMOOTHING, true, int32_t, int64_t, false, false>(
            // input feature information
            hist_ptr,
            // input task information
            task,
            cuda_random,
            // input config parameter values
            lambda_l1,
            lambda_l2,
            path_smooth,
            min_data_in_leaf,
            min_sum_hessian_in_leaf,
            min_gain_to_split,
            // input parent node information
            parent_gain,
            sum_gradients_hessians,
            num_data,
            parent_output,
            // gradient scale
            *grad_scale,
            *hess_scale,
            // output parameters
            out);
        }
      }
    }
  } else {
    out->is_valid = false;
  }
}

template <bool USE_RAND, bool USE_L1, bool USE_SMOOTHING, bool REVERSE>
__device__ void FindBestSplitsForLeafKernelInner_GlobalMemory(
  // input feature information
  const hist_t* feature_hist_ptr,
  // input task information
  const SplitFindTask* task,
  CUDARandom* cuda_random,
  // input config parameter values
  const double lambda_l1,
  const double lambda_l2,
  const double path_smooth,
  const data_size_t min_data_in_leaf,
  const double min_sum_hessian_in_leaf,
  const double min_gain_to_split,
  // input parent node information
  const double parent_gain,
  const double sum_gradients,
  const double sum_hessians,
  const data_size_t num_data,
  const double parent_output,
  // output parameters
  CUDASplitInfo* cuda_best_split_info,
  // buffer
  hist_t* hist_grad_buffer_ptr,
  hist_t* hist_hess_buffer_ptr) {
  const double cnt_factor = num_data / sum_hessians;
  const double min_gain_shift = parent_gain + min_gain_to_split;

  cuda_best_split_info->is_valid = false;
  double local_gain = 0.0f;
  bool threshold_found = false;
  uint32_t threshold_value = 0;
  __shared__ int rand_threshold;
  if (USE_RAND && threadIdx.x == 0) {
    if (task->num_bin - 2 > 0) {
      rand_threshold = cuda_random->NextInt(0, task->num_bin - 2);
    }
  }
  __shared__ uint32_t best_thread_index;
  __shared__ double shared_double_buffer[WARPSIZE];
  __shared__ bool shared_found_buffer[WARPSIZE];
  __shared__ uint32_t shared_thread_index_buffer[WARPSIZE];
  const unsigned int threadIdx_x = threadIdx.x;
  const uint32_t feature_num_bin_minus_offset = task->num_bin - task->mfb_offset;
  if (!REVERSE) {
    if (task->na_as_missing && task->mfb_offset == 1) {
      uint32_t bin_start = threadIdx_x > 0 ? threadIdx_x : blockDim.x;
      hist_t thread_sum_gradients = 0.0f;
      hist_t thread_sum_hessians = 0.0f;
      for (unsigned int bin = bin_start; bin < static_cast<uint32_t>(task->num_bin); bin += blockDim.x) {
        const unsigned int bin_offset = (bin - 1) << 1;
        const hist_t grad = feature_hist_ptr[bin_offset];
        const hist_t hess = feature_hist_ptr[bin_offset + 1];
        hist_grad_buffer_ptr[bin] = grad;
        hist_hess_buffer_ptr[bin] = hess;
        thread_sum_gradients += grad;
        thread_sum_hessians += hess;
      }
      const hist_t sum_gradients_non_default = ShuffleReduceSum<double>(thread_sum_gradients, shared_double_buffer, blockDim.x);
      __syncthreads();
      const hist_t sum_hessians_non_default = ShuffleReduceSum<double>(thread_sum_hessians, shared_double_buffer, blockDim.x);
      if (threadIdx_x == 0) {
        hist_grad_buffer_ptr[0] = sum_gradients - sum_gradients_non_default;
        hist_hess_buffer_ptr[0] = sum_hessians - sum_hessians_non_default;
      }
    } else {
      for (unsigned int bin = threadIdx_x; bin < feature_num_bin_minus_offset; bin += blockDim.x) {
        const bool skip_sum =
          (task->skip_default_bin && (bin + task->mfb_offset) == static_cast<int>(task->default_bin));
        if (!skip_sum) {
          const unsigned int bin_offset = bin << 1;
          hist_grad_buffer_ptr[bin] = feature_hist_ptr[bin_offset];
          hist_hess_buffer_ptr[bin] = feature_hist_ptr[bin_offset + 1];
        } else {
          hist_grad_buffer_ptr[bin] = 0.0f;
          hist_hess_buffer_ptr[bin] = 0.0f;
        }
      }
    }
  } else {
    for (unsigned int bin = threadIdx_x; bin < feature_num_bin_minus_offset; bin += blockDim.x) {
      const bool skip_sum = bin >= static_cast<unsigned int>(task->na_as_missing) &&
        (task->skip_default_bin && (task->num_bin - 1 - bin) == static_cast<int>(task->default_bin));
      if (!skip_sum) {
        const unsigned int read_index = feature_num_bin_minus_offset - 1 - bin;
        const unsigned int bin_offset = read_index << 1;
        hist_grad_buffer_ptr[bin] = feature_hist_ptr[bin_offset];
        hist_hess_buffer_ptr[bin] = feature_hist_ptr[bin_offset + 1];
      } else {
        hist_grad_buffer_ptr[bin] = 0.0f;
        hist_hess_buffer_ptr[bin] = 0.0f;
      }
    }
  }
  __syncthreads();
  if (threadIdx_x == 0) {
    hist_hess_buffer_ptr[0] += kEpsilon;
  }
  local_gain = kMinScore;
  GlobalMemoryPrefixSum(hist_grad_buffer_ptr, static_cast<size_t>(feature_num_bin_minus_offset));
  __syncthreads();
  GlobalMemoryPrefixSum(hist_hess_buffer_ptr, static_cast<size_t>(feature_num_bin_minus_offset));
  if (REVERSE) {
    for (unsigned int bin = threadIdx_x; bin < feature_num_bin_minus_offset; bin += blockDim.x) {
      const bool skip_sum = (bin >= static_cast<unsigned int>(task->na_as_missing) &&
        (task->skip_default_bin && (task->num_bin - 1 - bin) == static_cast<int>(task->default_bin)));
      if (!skip_sum) {
        const double sum_right_gradient = hist_grad_buffer_ptr[bin];
        const double sum_right_hessian = hist_hess_buffer_ptr[bin];
        const data_size_t right_count = static_cast<data_size_t>(__double2int_rn(sum_right_hessian * cnt_factor));
        const double sum_left_gradient = sum_gradients - sum_right_gradient;
        const double sum_left_hessian = sum_hessians - sum_right_hessian;
        const data_size_t left_count = num_data - right_count;
        if (sum_left_hessian >= min_sum_hessian_in_leaf && left_count >= min_data_in_leaf &&
          sum_right_hessian >= min_sum_hessian_in_leaf && right_count >= min_data_in_leaf &&
          (!USE_RAND || static_cast<int>(task->num_bin - 2 - bin) == rand_threshold)) {
          double current_gain = CUDALeafSplits::GetSplitGains<USE_L1, USE_SMOOTHING>(
            sum_left_gradient, sum_left_hessian, sum_right_gradient,
            sum_right_hessian, lambda_l1,
            lambda_l2, path_smooth, left_count, right_count, parent_output);
          // gain with split is worse than without split
          if (current_gain > min_gain_shift) {
            local_gain = current_gain - min_gain_shift;
            threshold_value = static_cast<uint32_t>(task->num_bin - 2 - bin);
            threshold_found = true;
          }
        }
      }
    }
  } else {
    const uint32_t end = (task->na_as_missing && task->mfb_offset == 1) ? static_cast<uint32_t>(task->num_bin - 2) : feature_num_bin_minus_offset - 2;
    for (unsigned int bin = threadIdx_x; bin <= end; bin += blockDim.x) {
      const bool skip_sum =
        (task->skip_default_bin && (bin + task->mfb_offset) == static_cast<int>(task->default_bin));
      if (!skip_sum) {
        const double sum_left_gradient = hist_grad_buffer_ptr[bin];
        const double sum_left_hessian = hist_hess_buffer_ptr[bin];
        const data_size_t left_count = static_cast<data_size_t>(__double2int_rn(sum_left_hessian * cnt_factor));
        const double sum_right_gradient = sum_gradients - sum_left_gradient;
        const double sum_right_hessian = sum_hessians - sum_left_hessian;
        const data_size_t right_count = num_data - left_count;
        if (sum_left_hessian >= min_sum_hessian_in_leaf && left_count >= min_data_in_leaf &&
          sum_right_hessian >= min_sum_hessian_in_leaf && right_count >= min_data_in_leaf &&
          (!USE_RAND || static_cast<int>(bin + task->mfb_offset) == rand_threshold)) {
          double current_gain = CUDALeafSplits::GetSplitGains<USE_L1, USE_SMOOTHING>(
            sum_left_gradient, sum_left_hessian, sum_right_gradient,
            sum_right_hessian, lambda_l1,
            lambda_l2, path_smooth, left_count, right_count, parent_output);
          // gain with split is worse than without split
          if (current_gain > min_gain_shift) {
            local_gain = current_gain - min_gain_shift;
            threshold_value = (task->na_as_missing && task->mfb_offset == 1) ?
              bin : static_cast<uint32_t>(bin + task->mfb_offset);
            threshold_found = true;
          }
        }
      }
    }
  }
  __syncthreads();
  const uint32_t result = ReduceBestGain(local_gain, threshold_found, threadIdx_x, shared_double_buffer, shared_found_buffer, shared_thread_index_buffer);
  if (threadIdx_x == 0) {
    best_thread_index = result;
  }
  __syncthreads();
  if (threshold_found && threadIdx_x == best_thread_index) {
    cuda_best_split_info->is_valid = true;
    cuda_best_split_info->threshold = threshold_value;
    cuda_best_split_info->gain = local_gain;
    cuda_best_split_info->default_left = task->assume_out_default_left;
    if (REVERSE) {
      const unsigned int best_bin = static_cast<uint32_t>(task->num_bin - 2 - threshold_value);
      const double sum_right_gradient = hist_grad_buffer_ptr[best_bin];
      const double sum_right_hessian = hist_hess_buffer_ptr[best_bin] - kEpsilon;
      const data_size_t right_count = static_cast<data_size_t>(__double2int_rn(sum_right_hessian * cnt_factor));
      const double sum_left_gradient = sum_gradients - sum_right_gradient;
      const double sum_left_hessian = sum_hessians - sum_right_hessian - kEpsilon;
      const data_size_t left_count = num_data - right_count;
      const double left_output = CUDALeafSplits::CalculateSplittedLeafOutput<USE_L1, USE_SMOOTHING>(sum_left_gradient,
        sum_left_hessian, lambda_l1, lambda_l2, path_smooth, left_count, parent_output);
      const double right_output = CUDALeafSplits::CalculateSplittedLeafOutput<USE_L1, USE_SMOOTHING>(sum_right_gradient,
        sum_right_hessian, lambda_l1, lambda_l2, path_smooth, right_count, parent_output);
      cuda_best_split_info->left_sum_gradients = sum_left_gradient;
      cuda_best_split_info->left_sum_hessians = sum_left_hessian;
      cuda_best_split_info->left_count = left_count;
      cuda_best_split_info->right_sum_gradients = sum_right_gradient;
      cuda_best_split_info->right_sum_hessians = sum_right_hessian;
      cuda_best_split_info->right_count = right_count;
      cuda_best_split_info->left_value = left_output;
      cuda_best_split_info->left_gain = CUDALeafSplits::GetLeafGainGivenOutput<USE_L1>(sum_left_gradient,
        sum_left_hessian, lambda_l1, lambda_l2, left_output);
      cuda_best_split_info->right_value = right_output;
      cuda_best_split_info->right_gain = CUDALeafSplits::GetLeafGainGivenOutput<USE_L1>(sum_right_gradient,
        sum_right_hessian, lambda_l1, lambda_l2, right_output);
    } else {
      const unsigned int best_bin = (task->na_as_missing && task->mfb_offset == 1) ?
        threshold_value : static_cast<uint32_t>(threshold_value - task->mfb_offset);
      const double sum_left_gradient = hist_grad_buffer_ptr[best_bin];
      const double sum_left_hessian = hist_hess_buffer_ptr[best_bin] - kEpsilon;
      const data_size_t left_count = static_cast<data_size_t>(__double2int_rn(sum_left_hessian * cnt_factor));
      const double sum_right_gradient = sum_gradients - sum_left_gradient;
      const double sum_right_hessian = sum_hessians - sum_left_hessian - kEpsilon;
      const data_size_t right_count = num_data - left_count;
      const double left_output = CUDALeafSplits::CalculateSplittedLeafOutput<USE_L1, USE_SMOOTHING>(sum_left_gradient,
        sum_left_hessian, lambda_l1, lambda_l2, path_smooth, left_count, parent_output);
      const double right_output = CUDALeafSplits::CalculateSplittedLeafOutput<USE_L1, USE_SMOOTHING>(sum_right_gradient,
        sum_right_hessian, lambda_l1, lambda_l2, path_smooth, right_count, parent_output);
      cuda_best_split_info->left_sum_gradients = sum_left_gradient;
      cuda_best_split_info->left_sum_hessians = sum_left_hessian;
      cuda_best_split_info->left_count = left_count;
      cuda_best_split_info->right_sum_gradients = sum_right_gradient;
      cuda_best_split_info->right_sum_hessians = sum_right_hessian;
      cuda_best_split_info->right_count = right_count;
      cuda_best_split_info->left_value = left_output;
      cuda_best_split_info->left_gain = CUDALeafSplits::GetLeafGainGivenOutput<USE_L1>(sum_left_gradient,
        sum_left_hessian, lambda_l1, lambda_l2, left_output);
      cuda_best_split_info->right_value = right_output;
      cuda_best_split_info->right_gain = CUDALeafSplits::GetLeafGainGivenOutput<USE_L1>(sum_right_gradient,
        sum_right_hessian, lambda_l1, lambda_l2, right_output);
    }
  }
}

template <bool USE_RAND, bool USE_L1, bool USE_SMOOTHING>
__device__ void FindBestSplitsForLeafKernelCategoricalInner_GlobalMemory(
  // input feature information
  const hist_t* feature_hist_ptr,
  // input task information
  const SplitFindTask* task,
  CUDARandom* cuda_random,
  // input config parameter values
  const double lambda_l1,
  const double lambda_l2,
  const double path_smooth,
  const data_size_t min_data_in_leaf,
  const double min_sum_hessian_in_leaf,
  const double min_gain_to_split,
  const double cat_smooth,
  const double cat_l2,
  const int max_cat_threshold,
  const int min_data_per_group,
  // input parent node information
  const double parent_gain,
  const double sum_gradients,
  const double sum_hessians,
  const data_size_t num_data,
  const double parent_output,
  // buffer
  hist_t* hist_grad_buffer_ptr,
  hist_t* hist_hess_buffer_ptr,
  hist_t* hist_stat_buffer_ptr,
  data_size_t* hist_index_buffer_ptr,
  // output parameters
  CUDASplitInfo* cuda_best_split_info) {
  __shared__ double shared_gain_buffer[WARPSIZE];
  __shared__ bool shared_found_buffer[WARPSIZE];
  __shared__ uint32_t shared_thread_index_buffer[WARPSIZE];
  __shared__ uint32_t best_thread_index;
  const double cnt_factor = num_data / sum_hessians;
  const double min_gain_shift = parent_gain + min_gain_to_split;
  double l2 = lambda_l2;

  double local_gain = kMinScore;
  bool threshold_found = false;

  cuda_best_split_info->is_valid = false;

  __shared__ int rand_threshold;

  const int bin_start = 1 - task->mfb_offset;
  const int bin_end = task->num_bin - task->mfb_offset;
  int best_threshold = -1;
  const int threadIdx_x = static_cast<int>(threadIdx.x);
  if (task->is_one_hot) {
    if (USE_RAND && threadIdx.x == 0) {
      rand_threshold = 0;
      if (bin_end > bin_start) {
        rand_threshold = cuda_random->NextInt(bin_start, bin_end);
      }
    }
    __syncthreads();
    for (int bin = bin_start + threadIdx_x; bin < bin_end; bin += static_cast<int>(blockDim.x)) {
      const int bin_offset = (bin << 1);
      const hist_t grad = feature_hist_ptr[bin_offset];
      const hist_t hess = feature_hist_ptr[bin_offset + 1];
      data_size_t cnt =
            static_cast<data_size_t>(__double2int_rn(hess * cnt_factor));
      if (cnt >= min_data_in_leaf && hess >= min_sum_hessian_in_leaf) {
        const data_size_t other_count = num_data - cnt;
        if (other_count >= min_data_in_leaf) {
          const double sum_other_hessian = sum_hessians - hess - kEpsilon;
          if (sum_other_hessian >= min_sum_hessian_in_leaf && (!USE_RAND || bin == rand_threshold)) {
            const double sum_other_gradient = sum_gradients - grad;
            double current_gain = CUDALeafSplits::GetSplitGains<USE_L1, USE_SMOOTHING>(
              sum_other_gradient, sum_other_hessian, grad,
              hess + kEpsilon, lambda_l1,
              l2, path_smooth, other_count, cnt, parent_output);
            if (current_gain > min_gain_shift) {
              best_threshold = bin;
              local_gain = current_gain - min_gain_shift;
              threshold_found = true;
            }
          }
        }
      }
    }
    __syncthreads();
    const uint32_t result = ReduceBestGain(local_gain, threshold_found, threadIdx_x, shared_gain_buffer, shared_found_buffer, shared_thread_index_buffer);
    if (threadIdx_x == 0) {
      best_thread_index = result;
    }
    __syncthreads();
    if (threshold_found && threadIdx_x == best_thread_index) {
      cuda_best_split_info->is_valid = true;
      cuda_best_split_info->num_cat_threshold = 1;
      cuda_best_split_info->cat_threshold = new uint32_t[1];
      *(cuda_best_split_info->cat_threshold) = static_cast<uint32_t>(best_threshold);
      cuda_best_split_info->default_left = false;
      const int bin_offset = (best_threshold << 1);
      const hist_t sum_left_gradient = feature_hist_ptr[bin_offset];
      const hist_t sum_left_hessian = feature_hist_ptr[bin_offset + 1];
      const data_size_t left_count = static_cast<data_size_t>(__double2int_rn(sum_left_hessian * cnt_factor));
      const double sum_right_gradient = sum_gradients - sum_left_gradient;
      const double sum_right_hessian = sum_hessians - sum_left_hessian;
      const data_size_t right_count = static_cast<data_size_t>(__double2int_rn(sum_right_hessian * cnt_factor));
      const double left_output = CUDALeafSplits::CalculateSplittedLeafOutput<USE_L1, USE_SMOOTHING>(sum_left_gradient,
        sum_left_hessian, lambda_l1, l2, path_smooth, left_count, parent_output);
      const double right_output = CUDALeafSplits::CalculateSplittedLeafOutput<USE_L1, USE_SMOOTHING>(sum_right_gradient,
        sum_right_hessian, lambda_l1, l2, path_smooth, right_count, parent_output);
      cuda_best_split_info->left_sum_gradients = sum_left_gradient;
      cuda_best_split_info->left_sum_hessians = sum_left_hessian;
      cuda_best_split_info->left_count = left_count;
      cuda_best_split_info->right_sum_gradients = sum_right_gradient;
      cuda_best_split_info->right_sum_hessians = sum_right_hessian;
      cuda_best_split_info->right_count = right_count;
      cuda_best_split_info->left_value = left_output;
      cuda_best_split_info->left_gain = CUDALeafSplits::GetLeafGainGivenOutput<USE_L1>(sum_left_gradient,
        sum_left_hessian, lambda_l1, l2, left_output);
      cuda_best_split_info->right_value = right_output;
      cuda_best_split_info->right_gain = CUDALeafSplits::GetLeafGainGivenOutput<USE_L1>(sum_right_gradient,
        sum_right_hessian, lambda_l1, l2, right_output);
    }
  } else {
    __shared__ uint16_t shared_mem_buffer_uint16[WARPSIZE];
    __shared__ int used_bin;
    l2 += cat_l2;
    uint16_t is_valid_bin = 0;
    int best_dir = 0;
    double best_sum_left_gradient = 0.0f;
    double best_sum_left_hessian = 0.0f;
    for (int bin = 0; bin < bin_end; bin += static_cast<int>(blockDim.x)) {
      if (bin >= bin_start) {
        const int bin_offset = (bin << 1);
        const double hess = feature_hist_ptr[bin_offset + 1];
        if (__double2int_rn(hess * cnt_factor) >= cat_smooth) {
          const double grad = feature_hist_ptr[bin_offset];
          hist_stat_buffer_ptr[bin] = grad / (hess + cat_smooth);
          hist_index_buffer_ptr[bin] = threadIdx_x;
          is_valid_bin = 1;
        } else {
          hist_stat_buffer_ptr[bin] = kMaxScore;
          hist_index_buffer_ptr[bin] = -1;
        }
      }
    }
    __syncthreads();
    const int local_used_bin = ShuffleReduceSum<uint16_t>(is_valid_bin, shared_mem_buffer_uint16, blockDim.x);
    if (threadIdx_x == 0) {
      used_bin = local_used_bin;
    }
    __syncthreads();
    BitonicArgSortDevice<double, data_size_t, true, NUM_THREADS_PER_BLOCK_BEST_SPLIT_FINDER, 11>(
      hist_stat_buffer_ptr, hist_index_buffer_ptr, task->num_bin - task->mfb_offset);
    const int max_num_cat = min(max_cat_threshold, (used_bin + 1) / 2);
    if (USE_RAND) {
      rand_threshold = 0;
      const int max_threshold = max(min(max_num_cat, used_bin) - 1, 0);
      if (max_threshold > 0) {
        rand_threshold = cuda_random->NextInt(0, max_threshold);
      }
    }
    __syncthreads();

    // left to right
    for (int bin = static_cast<int>(threadIdx_x); bin < used_bin && bin < max_num_cat; bin += static_cast<int>(blockDim.x)) {
      const int bin_offset = (hist_index_buffer_ptr[bin] << 1);
      hist_grad_buffer_ptr[bin] = feature_hist_ptr[bin_offset];
      hist_hess_buffer_ptr[bin] = feature_hist_ptr[bin_offset + 1];
    }
    if (threadIdx_x == 0) {
      hist_hess_buffer_ptr[0] += kEpsilon;
    }
    __syncthreads();
    GlobalMemoryPrefixSum<double>(hist_grad_buffer_ptr, static_cast<size_t>(bin_end));
    __syncthreads();
    GlobalMemoryPrefixSum<double>(hist_hess_buffer_ptr, static_cast<size_t>(bin_end));
    for (int bin = static_cast<int>(threadIdx_x); bin < used_bin && bin < max_num_cat; bin += static_cast<int>(blockDim.x)) {
      const double sum_left_gradient = hist_grad_buffer_ptr[bin];
      const double sum_left_hessian = hist_hess_buffer_ptr[bin];
      const data_size_t left_count = static_cast<data_size_t>(__double2int_rn(sum_left_hessian * cnt_factor));
      const double sum_right_gradient = sum_gradients - sum_left_gradient;
      const double sum_right_hessian = sum_hessians - sum_left_hessian;
      const data_size_t right_count = num_data - left_count;
      if (sum_left_hessian >= min_sum_hessian_in_leaf && left_count >= min_data_in_leaf &&
        sum_right_hessian >= min_sum_hessian_in_leaf && right_count >= min_data_in_leaf) {
        double current_gain = CUDALeafSplits::GetSplitGains<USE_L1, USE_SMOOTHING>(
          sum_left_gradient, sum_left_hessian, sum_right_gradient,
          sum_right_hessian, lambda_l1,
          l2, path_smooth, left_count, right_count, parent_output);
        // gain with split is worse than without split
        if (current_gain > min_gain_shift) {
          local_gain = current_gain - min_gain_shift;
          threshold_found = true;
          best_dir = 1;
          best_sum_left_gradient = sum_left_gradient;
          best_sum_left_hessian = sum_left_hessian;
          best_threshold = bin;
        }
      }
    }
    __syncthreads();

    // right to left
    for (int bin = static_cast<int>(threadIdx_x); bin < used_bin && bin < max_num_cat; bin += static_cast<int>(blockDim.x)) {
      const int bin_offset = (hist_index_buffer_ptr[used_bin - 1 - bin] << 1);
      hist_grad_buffer_ptr[bin] = feature_hist_ptr[bin_offset];
      hist_hess_buffer_ptr[bin] = feature_hist_ptr[bin_offset + 1];
    }
    if (threadIdx_x == 0) {
      hist_hess_buffer_ptr[0] += kEpsilon;
    }
    __syncthreads();
    GlobalMemoryPrefixSum<double>(hist_grad_buffer_ptr, static_cast<size_t>(bin_end));
    __syncthreads();
    GlobalMemoryPrefixSum<double>(hist_hess_buffer_ptr, static_cast<size_t>(bin_end));
    for (int bin = static_cast<int>(threadIdx_x); bin < used_bin && bin < max_num_cat; bin += static_cast<int>(blockDim.x)) {
      const double sum_left_gradient = hist_grad_buffer_ptr[bin];
      const double sum_left_hessian = hist_hess_buffer_ptr[bin];
      const data_size_t left_count = static_cast<data_size_t>(__double2int_rn(sum_left_hessian * cnt_factor));
      const double sum_right_gradient = sum_gradients - sum_left_gradient;
      const double sum_right_hessian = sum_hessians - sum_left_hessian;
      const data_size_t right_count = num_data - left_count;
      if (sum_left_hessian >= min_sum_hessian_in_leaf && left_count >= min_data_in_leaf &&
        sum_right_hessian >= min_sum_hessian_in_leaf && right_count >= min_data_in_leaf) {
        double current_gain = CUDALeafSplits::GetSplitGains<USE_L1, USE_SMOOTHING>(
          sum_left_gradient, sum_left_hessian, sum_right_gradient,
          sum_right_hessian, lambda_l1,
          l2, path_smooth, left_count, right_count, parent_output);
        // gain with split is worse than without split
        if (current_gain > min_gain_shift) {
          local_gain = current_gain - min_gain_shift;
          threshold_found = true;
          best_dir = -1;
          best_sum_left_gradient = sum_left_gradient;
          best_sum_left_hessian = sum_left_hessian;
          best_threshold = bin;
        }
      }
    }
    __syncthreads();

    const uint32_t result = ReduceBestGain(local_gain, threshold_found, threadIdx_x, shared_gain_buffer, shared_found_buffer, shared_thread_index_buffer);
    if (threadIdx_x == 0) {
      best_thread_index = result;
    }
    __syncthreads();
    if (threshold_found && threadIdx_x == best_thread_index) {
      cuda_best_split_info->is_valid = true;
      cuda_best_split_info->num_cat_threshold = best_threshold + 1;
      cuda_best_split_info->cat_threshold = new uint32_t[best_threshold + 1];
      cuda_best_split_info->gain = local_gain;
      if (best_dir == 1) {
        for (int i = 0; i < best_threshold + 1; ++i) {
          (cuda_best_split_info->cat_threshold)[i] = hist_index_buffer_ptr[i] + task->mfb_offset;
        }
      } else {
        for (int i = 0; i < best_threshold + 1; ++i) {
          (cuda_best_split_info->cat_threshold)[i] = hist_index_buffer_ptr[used_bin - 1 - i] + task->mfb_offset;
        }
      }
      cuda_best_split_info->default_left = false;
      const hist_t sum_left_gradient = best_sum_left_gradient;
      const hist_t sum_left_hessian = best_sum_left_hessian;
      const data_size_t left_count = static_cast<data_size_t>(__double2int_rn(sum_left_hessian * cnt_factor));
      const double sum_right_gradient = sum_gradients - sum_left_gradient;
      const double sum_right_hessian = sum_hessians - sum_left_hessian;
      const data_size_t right_count = static_cast<data_size_t>(__double2int_rn(sum_right_hessian * cnt_factor));
      const double left_output = CUDALeafSplits::CalculateSplittedLeafOutput<USE_L1, USE_SMOOTHING>(sum_left_gradient,
        sum_left_hessian, lambda_l1, l2, path_smooth, left_count, parent_output);
      const double right_output = CUDALeafSplits::CalculateSplittedLeafOutput<USE_L1, USE_SMOOTHING>(sum_right_gradient,
        sum_right_hessian, lambda_l1, l2, path_smooth, right_count, parent_output);
      cuda_best_split_info->left_sum_gradients = sum_left_gradient;
      cuda_best_split_info->left_sum_hessians = sum_left_hessian;
      cuda_best_split_info->left_count = left_count;
      cuda_best_split_info->right_sum_gradients = sum_right_gradient;
      cuda_best_split_info->right_sum_hessians = sum_right_hessian;
      cuda_best_split_info->right_count = right_count;
      cuda_best_split_info->left_value = left_output;
      cuda_best_split_info->left_gain = CUDALeafSplits::GetLeafGainGivenOutput<USE_L1>(sum_left_gradient,
        sum_left_hessian, lambda_l1, l2, left_output);
      cuda_best_split_info->right_value = right_output;
      cuda_best_split_info->right_gain = CUDALeafSplits::GetLeafGainGivenOutput<USE_L1>(sum_right_gradient,
        sum_right_hessian, lambda_l1, l2, right_output);
    }
  }
}

template <bool USE_RAND, bool USE_L1, bool USE_SMOOTHING, bool IS_LARGER>
__global__ void FindBestSplitsForLeafKernel_GlobalMemory(
  // input feature information
  const int8_t* is_feature_used_bytree,
  // input task information
  const int num_tasks,
  const SplitFindTask* tasks,
  CUDARandom* cuda_randoms,
  // input leaf information
  const CUDALeafSplitsStruct* smaller_leaf_splits,
  const CUDALeafSplitsStruct* larger_leaf_splits,
  // input config parameter values
  const data_size_t min_data_in_leaf,
  const double min_sum_hessian_in_leaf,
  const double min_gain_to_split,
  const double lambda_l1,
  const double lambda_l2,
  const double path_smooth,
  const double cat_smooth,
  const double cat_l2,
  const int max_cat_threshold,
  const int min_data_per_group,
  // output
  CUDASplitInfo* cuda_best_split_info,
  // buffer
  hist_t* feature_hist_grad_buffer,
  hist_t* feature_hist_hess_buffer,
  hist_t* feature_hist_stat_buffer,
  data_size_t* feature_hist_index_buffer) {
  const unsigned int task_index = blockIdx.x;
  const SplitFindTask* task = tasks + task_index;
  const double parent_gain = IS_LARGER ? larger_leaf_splits->gain : smaller_leaf_splits->gain;
  const double sum_gradients = IS_LARGER ? larger_leaf_splits->sum_of_gradients : smaller_leaf_splits->sum_of_gradients;
  const double sum_hessians = (IS_LARGER ? larger_leaf_splits->sum_of_hessians : smaller_leaf_splits->sum_of_hessians) + 2 * kEpsilon;
  const data_size_t num_data = IS_LARGER ? larger_leaf_splits->num_data_in_leaf : smaller_leaf_splits->num_data_in_leaf;
  const double parent_output = IS_LARGER ? larger_leaf_splits->leaf_value : smaller_leaf_splits->leaf_value;
  const unsigned int output_offset = IS_LARGER ? (task_index + num_tasks) : task_index;
  CUDASplitInfo* out = cuda_best_split_info + output_offset;
  CUDARandom* cuda_random = USE_RAND ?
    (IS_LARGER ? cuda_randoms + task_index * 2 + 1: cuda_randoms + task_index * 2) : nullptr;
  if (is_feature_used_bytree[task->inner_feature_index]) {
    const uint32_t hist_offset = task->hist_offset;
    const hist_t* hist_ptr = (IS_LARGER ? larger_leaf_splits->hist_in_leaf : smaller_leaf_splits->hist_in_leaf) + hist_offset * 2;
    hist_t* hist_grad_buffer_ptr = feature_hist_grad_buffer + hist_offset * 2;
    hist_t* hist_hess_buffer_ptr = feature_hist_hess_buffer + hist_offset * 2;
    hist_t* hist_stat_buffer_ptr = feature_hist_stat_buffer + hist_offset * 2;
    data_size_t* hist_index_buffer_ptr = feature_hist_index_buffer + hist_offset * 2;
    if (task->is_categorical) {
      FindBestSplitsForLeafKernelCategoricalInner_GlobalMemory<USE_RAND, USE_L1, USE_SMOOTHING>(
        // input feature information
        hist_ptr,
        // input task information
        task,
        cuda_random,
        // input config parameter values
        lambda_l1,
        lambda_l2,
        path_smooth,
        min_data_in_leaf,
        min_sum_hessian_in_leaf,
        min_gain_to_split,
        cat_smooth,
        cat_l2,
        max_cat_threshold,
        min_data_per_group,
        // input parent node information
        parent_gain,
        sum_gradients,
        sum_hessians,
        num_data,
        parent_output,
        // buffer
        hist_grad_buffer_ptr,
        hist_hess_buffer_ptr,
        hist_stat_buffer_ptr,
        hist_index_buffer_ptr,
        // output parameters
        out);
    } else {
      if (!task->reverse) {
        FindBestSplitsForLeafKernelInner_GlobalMemory<USE_RAND, USE_L1, USE_SMOOTHING, false>(
          // input feature information
          hist_ptr,
          // input task information
          task,
          cuda_random,
          // input config parameter values
          lambda_l1,
          lambda_l2,
          path_smooth,
          min_data_in_leaf,
          min_sum_hessian_in_leaf,
          min_gain_to_split,
          // input parent node information
          parent_gain,
          sum_gradients,
          sum_hessians,
          num_data,
          parent_output,
          // output parameters
          out,
          // buffer
          hist_grad_buffer_ptr,
          hist_hess_buffer_ptr);
      } else {
        FindBestSplitsForLeafKernelInner_GlobalMemory<USE_RAND, USE_L1, USE_SMOOTHING, true>(
          // input feature information
          hist_ptr,
          // input task information
          task,
          cuda_random,
          // input config parameter values
          lambda_l1,
          lambda_l2,
          path_smooth,
          min_data_in_leaf,
          min_sum_hessian_in_leaf,
          min_gain_to_split,
          // input parent node information
          parent_gain,
          sum_gradients,
          sum_hessians,
          num_data,
          parent_output,
          // output parameters
          out,
          // buffer
          hist_grad_buffer_ptr,
          hist_hess_buffer_ptr);
      }
    }
  } else {
    out->is_valid = false;
  }
}

#define LaunchFindBestSplitsForLeafKernel_PARAMS \
  const CUDALeafSplitsStruct* smaller_leaf_splits, \
  const CUDALeafSplitsStruct* larger_leaf_splits, \
  const int smaller_leaf_index, \
  const int larger_leaf_index, \
  const bool is_smaller_leaf_valid, \
  const bool is_larger_leaf_valid

#define LaunchFindBestSplitsForLeafKernel_ARGS \
  smaller_leaf_splits, \
  larger_leaf_splits, \
  smaller_leaf_index, \
  larger_leaf_index, \
  is_smaller_leaf_valid, \
  is_larger_leaf_valid

#define FindBestSplitsForLeafKernel_ARGS \
    num_tasks_, \
    cuda_split_find_tasks_.RawData(), \
    cuda_randoms_.RawData(), \
    smaller_leaf_splits, \
    larger_leaf_splits, \
    min_data_in_leaf_, \
    min_sum_hessian_in_leaf_, \
    min_gain_to_split_, \
    lambda_l1_, \
    lambda_l2_, \
    path_smooth_, \
    cat_smooth_, \
    cat_l2_, \
    max_cat_threshold_, \
    min_data_per_group_, \
    cuda_best_split_info_

#define GlobalMemory_Buffer_ARGS \
  cuda_feature_hist_grad_buffer_, \
  cuda_feature_hist_hess_buffer_, \
  cuda_feature_hist_stat_buffer_, \
  cuda_feature_hist_index_buffer_

void CUDABestSplitFinder::LaunchFindBestSplitsForLeafKernel(LaunchFindBestSplitsForLeafKernel_PARAMS) {
  if (!is_smaller_leaf_valid && !is_larger_leaf_valid) {
    return;
  }
  if (!extra_trees_) {
    LaunchFindBestSplitsForLeafKernelInner0<false>(LaunchFindBestSplitsForLeafKernel_ARGS);
  } else {
    LaunchFindBestSplitsForLeafKernelInner0<true>(LaunchFindBestSplitsForLeafKernel_ARGS);
  }
}

template <bool USE_RAND>
void CUDABestSplitFinder::LaunchFindBestSplitsForLeafKernelInner0(LaunchFindBestSplitsForLeafKernel_PARAMS) {
  if (lambda_l1_ <= 0.0f) {
    LaunchFindBestSplitsForLeafKernelInner1<USE_RAND, false>(LaunchFindBestSplitsForLeafKernel_ARGS);
  } else {
    LaunchFindBestSplitsForLeafKernelInner1<USE_RAND, true>(LaunchFindBestSplitsForLeafKernel_ARGS);
  }
}

template <bool USE_RAND, bool USE_L1>
void CUDABestSplitFinder::LaunchFindBestSplitsForLeafKernelInner1(LaunchFindBestSplitsForLeafKernel_PARAMS) {
  if (!use_smoothing_) {
    LaunchFindBestSplitsForLeafKernelInner2<USE_RAND, USE_L1, false>(LaunchFindBestSplitsForLeafKernel_ARGS);
  } else {
    LaunchFindBestSplitsForLeafKernelInner2<USE_RAND, USE_L1, true>(LaunchFindBestSplitsForLeafKernel_ARGS);
  }
}

template <bool USE_RAND, bool USE_L1, bool USE_SMOOTHING>
void CUDABestSplitFinder::LaunchFindBestSplitsForLeafKernelInner2(LaunchFindBestSplitsForLeafKernel_PARAMS) {
  const int8_t* is_feature_used_by_smaller_node = cuda_is_feature_used_bytree_;
  const int8_t* is_feature_used_by_larger_node = cuda_is_feature_used_bytree_;
  if (select_features_by_node_) {
    is_feature_used_by_smaller_node = is_feature_used_by_smaller_node_.RawData();
    is_feature_used_by_larger_node = is_feature_used_by_larger_node_.RawData();
  }
  if (!use_global_memory_) {
    if (is_smaller_leaf_valid) {
      FindBestSplitsForLeafKernel<USE_RAND, USE_L1, USE_SMOOTHING, false>
        <<<num_tasks_, NUM_THREADS_PER_BLOCK_BEST_SPLIT_FINDER, 0, cuda_streams_[0]>>>
        (is_feature_used_by_smaller_node, FindBestSplitsForLeafKernel_ARGS);
    }
    SynchronizeCUDADevice(__FILE__, __LINE__);
    if (is_larger_leaf_valid) {
      FindBestSplitsForLeafKernel<USE_RAND, USE_L1, USE_SMOOTHING, true>
        <<<num_tasks_, NUM_THREADS_PER_BLOCK_BEST_SPLIT_FINDER, 0, cuda_streams_[1]>>>
        (is_feature_used_by_larger_node, FindBestSplitsForLeafKernel_ARGS);
    }
  } else {
    if (is_smaller_leaf_valid) {
      FindBestSplitsForLeafKernel_GlobalMemory<USE_RAND, USE_L1, USE_SMOOTHING, false>
        <<<num_tasks_, NUM_THREADS_PER_BLOCK_BEST_SPLIT_FINDER, 0, cuda_streams_[0]>>>
        (is_feature_used_by_smaller_node, FindBestSplitsForLeafKernel_ARGS, GlobalMemory_Buffer_ARGS);
    }
    SynchronizeCUDADevice(__FILE__, __LINE__);
    if (is_larger_leaf_valid) {
      FindBestSplitsForLeafKernel_GlobalMemory<USE_RAND, USE_L1, USE_SMOOTHING, true>
        <<<num_tasks_, NUM_THREADS_PER_BLOCK_BEST_SPLIT_FINDER, 0, cuda_streams_[1]>>>
        (is_feature_used_by_larger_node, FindBestSplitsForLeafKernel_ARGS, GlobalMemory_Buffer_ARGS);
    }
  }
}

#undef LaunchFindBestSplitsForLeafKernel_PARAMS
#undef FindBestSplitsForLeafKernel_ARGS
#undef GlobalMemory_Buffer_ARGS


#define LaunchFindBestSplitsDiscretizedForLeafKernel_PARAMS \
  const CUDALeafSplitsStruct* smaller_leaf_splits, \
  const CUDALeafSplitsStruct* larger_leaf_splits, \
  const int smaller_leaf_index, \
  const int larger_leaf_index, \
  const bool is_smaller_leaf_valid, \
  const bool is_larger_leaf_valid, \
  const score_t* grad_scale, \
  const score_t* hess_scale, \
  const uint8_t smaller_num_bits_in_histogram_bins, \
  const uint8_t larger_num_bits_in_histogram_bins

#define LaunchFindBestSplitsDiscretizedForLeafKernel_ARGS \
  smaller_leaf_splits, \
  larger_leaf_splits, \
  smaller_leaf_index, \
  larger_leaf_index, \
  is_smaller_leaf_valid, \
  is_larger_leaf_valid, \
  grad_scale, \
  hess_scale, \
  smaller_num_bits_in_histogram_bins, \
  larger_num_bits_in_histogram_bins

#define FindBestSplitsDiscretizedForLeafKernel_ARGS \
    cuda_is_feature_used_bytree_, \
    num_tasks_, \
    cuda_split_find_tasks_.RawData(), \
    cuda_randoms_.RawData(), \
    smaller_leaf_splits, \
    larger_leaf_splits, \
    smaller_num_bits_in_histogram_bins, \
    larger_num_bits_in_histogram_bins, \
    min_data_in_leaf_, \
    min_sum_hessian_in_leaf_, \
    min_gain_to_split_, \
    lambda_l1_, \
    lambda_l2_, \
    path_smooth_, \
    cat_smooth_, \
    cat_l2_, \
    max_cat_threshold_, \
    min_data_per_group_, \
    max_cat_to_onehot_, \
    grad_scale, \
    hess_scale, \
    cuda_best_split_info_

void CUDABestSplitFinder::LaunchFindBestSplitsDiscretizedForLeafKernel(LaunchFindBestSplitsDiscretizedForLeafKernel_PARAMS) {
  if (!is_smaller_leaf_valid && !is_larger_leaf_valid) {
    return;
  }
  if (!extra_trees_) {
    LaunchFindBestSplitsDiscretizedForLeafKernelInner0<false>(LaunchFindBestSplitsDiscretizedForLeafKernel_ARGS);
  } else {
    LaunchFindBestSplitsDiscretizedForLeafKernelInner0<true>(LaunchFindBestSplitsDiscretizedForLeafKernel_ARGS);
  }
}

template <bool USE_RAND>
void CUDABestSplitFinder::LaunchFindBestSplitsDiscretizedForLeafKernelInner0(LaunchFindBestSplitsDiscretizedForLeafKernel_PARAMS) {
  if (lambda_l1_ <= 0.0f) {
    LaunchFindBestSplitsDiscretizedForLeafKernelInner1<USE_RAND, false>(LaunchFindBestSplitsDiscretizedForLeafKernel_ARGS);
  } else {
    LaunchFindBestSplitsDiscretizedForLeafKernelInner1<USE_RAND, true>(LaunchFindBestSplitsDiscretizedForLeafKernel_ARGS);
  }
}

template <bool USE_RAND, bool USE_L1>
void CUDABestSplitFinder::LaunchFindBestSplitsDiscretizedForLeafKernelInner1(LaunchFindBestSplitsDiscretizedForLeafKernel_PARAMS) {
  if (!use_smoothing_) {
    LaunchFindBestSplitsDiscretizedForLeafKernelInner2<USE_RAND, USE_L1, false>(LaunchFindBestSplitsDiscretizedForLeafKernel_ARGS);
  } else {
    LaunchFindBestSplitsDiscretizedForLeafKernelInner2<USE_RAND, USE_L1, true>(LaunchFindBestSplitsDiscretizedForLeafKernel_ARGS);
  }
}

template <bool USE_RAND, bool USE_L1, bool USE_SMOOTHING>
void CUDABestSplitFinder::LaunchFindBestSplitsDiscretizedForLeafKernelInner2(LaunchFindBestSplitsDiscretizedForLeafKernel_PARAMS) {
  if (!use_global_memory_) {
    if (is_smaller_leaf_valid) {
      FindBestSplitsDiscretizedForLeafKernel<USE_RAND, USE_L1, USE_SMOOTHING, false>
        <<<num_tasks_, NUM_THREADS_PER_BLOCK_BEST_SPLIT_FINDER, 0, cuda_streams_[0]>>>
        (FindBestSplitsDiscretizedForLeafKernel_ARGS);
    }
    SynchronizeCUDADevice(__FILE__, __LINE__);
    if (is_larger_leaf_valid) {
      FindBestSplitsDiscretizedForLeafKernel<USE_RAND, USE_L1, USE_SMOOTHING, true>
        <<<num_tasks_, NUM_THREADS_PER_BLOCK_BEST_SPLIT_FINDER, 0, cuda_streams_[1]>>>
        (FindBestSplitsDiscretizedForLeafKernel_ARGS);
    }
  } else {
    // TODO(shiyu1994)
  }
}

#undef LaunchFindBestSplitsDiscretizedForLeafKernel_PARAMS
#undef LaunchFindBestSplitsDiscretizedForLeafKernel_ARGS
#undef FindBestSplitsDiscretizedForLeafKernel_ARGS


__device__ void ReduceBestSplit(bool* found, double* gain, uint32_t* shared_read_index,
  uint32_t num_features_aligned) {
  const uint32_t threadIdx_x = threadIdx.x;
  for (unsigned int s = 1; s < num_features_aligned; s <<= 1) {
    if (threadIdx_x % (2 * s) == 0 && (threadIdx_x + s) < num_features_aligned) {
      const uint32_t pos_to_compare = threadIdx_x + s;
      if ((!found[threadIdx_x] && found[pos_to_compare]) ||
        (found[threadIdx_x] && found[pos_to_compare] && gain[threadIdx_x] < gain[pos_to_compare])) {
        found[threadIdx_x] = found[pos_to_compare];
        gain[threadIdx_x] = gain[pos_to_compare];
        shared_read_index[threadIdx_x] = shared_read_index[pos_to_compare];
      }
    }
    __syncthreads();
  }
}

__global__ void SyncBestSplitForLeafKernel(const int smaller_leaf_index, const int larger_leaf_index,
  CUDASplitInfo* cuda_leaf_best_split_info,
  // input parameters
  const SplitFindTask* tasks,
  const CUDASplitInfo* cuda_best_split_info,
  const int num_tasks,
  const int num_tasks_aligned,
  const int num_blocks_per_leaf,
  const bool larger_only,
  const int num_leaves) {
  __shared__ double shared_gain_buffer[WARPSIZE];
  __shared__ bool shared_found_buffer[WARPSIZE];
  __shared__ uint32_t shared_thread_index_buffer[WARPSIZE];
  const uint32_t threadIdx_x = threadIdx.x;
  const uint32_t blockIdx_x = blockIdx.x;

  bool best_found = false;
  double best_gain = kMinScore;
  uint32_t shared_read_index = 0;

  const bool is_smaller = (blockIdx_x < static_cast<unsigned int>(num_blocks_per_leaf) && !larger_only);
  const uint32_t leaf_block_index = (is_smaller || larger_only) ? blockIdx_x : (blockIdx_x - static_cast<unsigned int>(num_blocks_per_leaf));
  const int task_index = static_cast<int>(leaf_block_index * blockDim.x + threadIdx_x);
  const uint32_t read_index = is_smaller ? static_cast<uint32_t>(task_index) : static_cast<uint32_t>(task_index + num_tasks);
  if (task_index < num_tasks) {
    best_found = cuda_best_split_info[read_index].is_valid;
    best_gain = cuda_best_split_info[read_index].gain;
    shared_read_index = read_index;
  } else {
    best_found = false;
  }

  __syncthreads();
  const uint32_t best_read_index = ReduceBestGain(best_gain, best_found, shared_read_index,
      shared_gain_buffer, shared_found_buffer, shared_thread_index_buffer);
  if (threadIdx.x == 0) {
    const int leaf_index_ref = is_smaller ? smaller_leaf_index : larger_leaf_index;
    const unsigned buffer_write_pos = static_cast<unsigned int>(leaf_index_ref) + leaf_block_index * num_leaves;
    CUDASplitInfo* cuda_split_info = cuda_leaf_best_split_info + buffer_write_pos;
    const CUDASplitInfo* best_split_info = cuda_best_split_info + best_read_index;
    if (best_split_info->is_valid) {
      *cuda_split_info = *best_split_info;
      cuda_split_info->inner_feature_index = is_smaller ? tasks[best_read_index].inner_feature_index :
        tasks[static_cast<int>(best_read_index) - num_tasks].inner_feature_index;
      cuda_split_info->is_valid = true;
    } else {
      cuda_split_info->gain = kMinScore;
      cuda_split_info->is_valid = false;
    }
  }
}

__global__ void SyncBestSplitForLeafKernelAllBlocks(
  const int smaller_leaf_index,
  const int larger_leaf_index,
  const unsigned int num_blocks_per_leaf,
  const int num_leaves,
  CUDASplitInfo* cuda_leaf_best_split_info,
  const bool larger_only) {
  if (!larger_only) {
    if (blockIdx.x == 0) {
      CUDASplitInfo* smaller_leaf_split_info = cuda_leaf_best_split_info + smaller_leaf_index;
      for (unsigned int block_index = 1; block_index < num_blocks_per_leaf; ++block_index) {
        const unsigned int leaf_read_pos = static_cast<unsigned int>(smaller_leaf_index) + block_index * static_cast<unsigned int>(num_leaves);
        const CUDASplitInfo* other_split_info = cuda_leaf_best_split_info + leaf_read_pos;
        if ((other_split_info->is_valid && smaller_leaf_split_info->is_valid &&
          other_split_info->gain > smaller_leaf_split_info->gain) ||
            (!smaller_leaf_split_info->is_valid && other_split_info->is_valid)) {
          *smaller_leaf_split_info = *other_split_info;
        }
      }
    }
  }
  if (larger_leaf_index >= 0) {
    if (blockIdx.x == 1 || larger_only) {
      CUDASplitInfo* larger_leaf_split_info = cuda_leaf_best_split_info + larger_leaf_index;
      for (unsigned int block_index = 1; block_index < num_blocks_per_leaf; ++block_index) {
        const unsigned int leaf_read_pos = static_cast<unsigned int>(larger_leaf_index) + block_index * static_cast<unsigned int>(num_leaves);
        const CUDASplitInfo* other_split_info = cuda_leaf_best_split_info + leaf_read_pos;
        if ((other_split_info->is_valid && larger_leaf_split_info->is_valid &&
          other_split_info->gain > larger_leaf_split_info->gain) ||
            (!larger_leaf_split_info->is_valid && other_split_info->is_valid)) {
            *larger_leaf_split_info = *other_split_info;
        }
      }
    }
  }
}

__global__ void SetInvalidLeafSplitInfoKernel(
  CUDASplitInfo* cuda_leaf_best_split_info,
  const bool is_smaller_leaf_valid,
  const bool is_larger_leaf_valid,
  const int smaller_leaf_index,
  const int larger_leaf_index) {
  if (!is_smaller_leaf_valid) {
    cuda_leaf_best_split_info[smaller_leaf_index].is_valid = false;
  }
  if (!is_larger_leaf_valid && larger_leaf_index >= 0) {
    cuda_leaf_best_split_info[larger_leaf_index].is_valid = false;
  }
}

void CUDABestSplitFinder::LaunchSyncBestSplitForLeafKernel(
  const int host_smaller_leaf_index,
  const int host_larger_leaf_index,
  const bool is_smaller_leaf_valid,
  const bool is_larger_leaf_valid) {
  if (!is_smaller_leaf_valid || !is_larger_leaf_valid) {
    SetInvalidLeafSplitInfoKernel<<<1, 1>>>(
      cuda_leaf_best_split_info_,
      is_smaller_leaf_valid, is_larger_leaf_valid,
      host_smaller_leaf_index, host_larger_leaf_index);
  }
  if (!is_smaller_leaf_valid && !is_larger_leaf_valid) {
    return;
  }
  int num_tasks = num_tasks_;
  int num_tasks_aligned = 1;
  num_tasks -= 1;
  while (num_tasks > 0) {
    num_tasks_aligned <<= 1;
    num_tasks >>= 1;
  }
  const int num_blocks_per_leaf = (num_tasks_ + NUM_TASKS_PER_SYNC_BLOCK - 1) / NUM_TASKS_PER_SYNC_BLOCK;
  if (host_larger_leaf_index >= 0 && is_smaller_leaf_valid && is_larger_leaf_valid) {
    SyncBestSplitForLeafKernel<<<num_blocks_per_leaf, NUM_TASKS_PER_SYNC_BLOCK, 0, cuda_streams_[0]>>>(
      host_smaller_leaf_index,
      host_larger_leaf_index,
      cuda_leaf_best_split_info_,
      cuda_split_find_tasks_.RawData(),
      cuda_best_split_info_,
      num_tasks_,
      num_tasks_aligned,
      num_blocks_per_leaf,
      false,
      num_leaves_);
    if (num_blocks_per_leaf > 1) {
      SyncBestSplitForLeafKernelAllBlocks<<<1, 1, 0, cuda_streams_[0]>>>(
        host_smaller_leaf_index,
        host_larger_leaf_index,
        num_blocks_per_leaf,
        num_leaves_,
        cuda_leaf_best_split_info_,
        false);
    }
    SynchronizeCUDADevice(__FILE__, __LINE__);
    SyncBestSplitForLeafKernel<<<num_blocks_per_leaf, NUM_TASKS_PER_SYNC_BLOCK, 0, cuda_streams_[1]>>>(
      host_smaller_leaf_index,
      host_larger_leaf_index,
      cuda_leaf_best_split_info_,
      cuda_split_find_tasks_.RawData(),
      cuda_best_split_info_,
      num_tasks_,
      num_tasks_aligned,
      num_blocks_per_leaf,
      true,
      num_leaves_);
    if (num_blocks_per_leaf > 1) {
      SyncBestSplitForLeafKernelAllBlocks<<<1, 1, 0, cuda_streams_[1]>>>(
        host_smaller_leaf_index,
        host_larger_leaf_index,
        num_blocks_per_leaf,
        num_leaves_,
        cuda_leaf_best_split_info_,
        true);
    }
  } else {
    const bool larger_only = (!is_smaller_leaf_valid && is_larger_leaf_valid);
    SyncBestSplitForLeafKernel<<<num_blocks_per_leaf, NUM_TASKS_PER_SYNC_BLOCK>>>(
      host_smaller_leaf_index,
      host_larger_leaf_index,
      cuda_leaf_best_split_info_,
      cuda_split_find_tasks_.RawData(),
      cuda_best_split_info_,
      num_tasks_,
      num_tasks_aligned,
      num_blocks_per_leaf,
      larger_only,
      num_leaves_);
    if (num_blocks_per_leaf > 1) {
      SynchronizeCUDADevice(__FILE__, __LINE__);
      SyncBestSplitForLeafKernelAllBlocks<<<1, 1>>>(
        host_smaller_leaf_index,
        host_larger_leaf_index,
        num_blocks_per_leaf,
        num_leaves_,
        cuda_leaf_best_split_info_,
        larger_only);
    }
  }
}

__global__ void FindBestFromAllSplitsKernel(const int cur_num_leaves,
  CUDASplitInfo* cuda_leaf_best_split_info,
  int* cuda_best_split_info_buffer) {
  __shared__ double gain_shared_buffer[WARPSIZE];
  __shared__ int leaf_index_shared_buffer[WARPSIZE];
  double thread_best_gain = kMinScore;
  int thread_best_leaf_index = -1;
  const int threadIdx_x = static_cast<int>(threadIdx.x);
  for (int leaf_index = threadIdx_x; leaf_index < cur_num_leaves; leaf_index += static_cast<int>(blockDim.x)) {
    const double leaf_best_gain = cuda_leaf_best_split_info[leaf_index].gain;
    if (cuda_leaf_best_split_info[leaf_index].is_valid && leaf_best_gain > thread_best_gain) {
      thread_best_gain = leaf_best_gain;
      thread_best_leaf_index = leaf_index;
    }
  }
  const int best_leaf_index = ReduceBestGainForLeaves(thread_best_gain, thread_best_leaf_index, gain_shared_buffer, leaf_index_shared_buffer);
  if (threadIdx_x == 0) {
    cuda_best_split_info_buffer[6] = best_leaf_index;
    if (best_leaf_index != -1) {
      cuda_leaf_best_split_info[best_leaf_index].is_valid = false;
      cuda_leaf_best_split_info[cur_num_leaves].is_valid = false;
      cuda_best_split_info_buffer[7] = cuda_leaf_best_split_info[best_leaf_index].num_cat_threshold;
    }
  }
}

__global__ void PrepareLeafBestSplitInfo(const int smaller_leaf_index, const int larger_leaf_index,
  int* cuda_best_split_info_buffer,
  const CUDASplitInfo* cuda_leaf_best_split_info) {
  const unsigned int threadIdx_x = blockIdx.x;
  if (threadIdx_x == 0) {
    cuda_best_split_info_buffer[0] = cuda_leaf_best_split_info[smaller_leaf_index].inner_feature_index;
  } else if (threadIdx_x == 1) {
    cuda_best_split_info_buffer[1] = cuda_leaf_best_split_info[smaller_leaf_index].threshold;
  } else if (threadIdx_x == 2) {
    cuda_best_split_info_buffer[2] = cuda_leaf_best_split_info[smaller_leaf_index].default_left;
  }
  if (larger_leaf_index >= 0) {
    if (threadIdx_x == 3) {
      cuda_best_split_info_buffer[3] = cuda_leaf_best_split_info[larger_leaf_index].inner_feature_index;
    } else if (threadIdx_x == 4) {
      cuda_best_split_info_buffer[4] = cuda_leaf_best_split_info[larger_leaf_index].threshold;
    } else if (threadIdx_x == 5) {
      cuda_best_split_info_buffer[5] = cuda_leaf_best_split_info[larger_leaf_index].default_left;
    }
  }
}

void CUDABestSplitFinder::LaunchFindBestFromAllSplitsKernel(
  const int cur_num_leaves,
  const int smaller_leaf_index, const int larger_leaf_index,
  int* smaller_leaf_best_split_feature,
  uint32_t* smaller_leaf_best_split_threshold,
  uint8_t* smaller_leaf_best_split_default_left,
  int* larger_leaf_best_split_feature,
  uint32_t* larger_leaf_best_split_threshold,
  uint8_t* larger_leaf_best_split_default_left,
  int* best_leaf_index,
  int* num_cat_threshold) {
  FindBestFromAllSplitsKernel<<<1, NUM_THREADS_FIND_BEST_LEAF, 0, cuda_streams_[1]>>>(cur_num_leaves,
    cuda_leaf_best_split_info_,
    cuda_best_split_info_buffer_);
  PrepareLeafBestSplitInfo<<<6, 1, 0, cuda_streams_[0]>>>(smaller_leaf_index, larger_leaf_index,
    cuda_best_split_info_buffer_,
    cuda_leaf_best_split_info_);
  std::vector<int> host_leaf_best_split_info_buffer(8, 0);
  SynchronizeCUDADevice(__FILE__, __LINE__);
  CopyFromCUDADeviceToHost<int>(host_leaf_best_split_info_buffer.data(), cuda_best_split_info_buffer_, 8, __FILE__, __LINE__);
  *smaller_leaf_best_split_feature = host_leaf_best_split_info_buffer[0];
  *smaller_leaf_best_split_threshold = static_cast<uint32_t>(host_leaf_best_split_info_buffer[1]);
  *smaller_leaf_best_split_default_left = static_cast<uint8_t>(host_leaf_best_split_info_buffer[2]);
  if (larger_leaf_index >= 0) {
    *larger_leaf_best_split_feature = host_leaf_best_split_info_buffer[3];
    *larger_leaf_best_split_threshold = static_cast<uint32_t>(host_leaf_best_split_info_buffer[4]);
    *larger_leaf_best_split_default_left = static_cast<uint8_t>(host_leaf_best_split_info_buffer[5]);
  }
  *best_leaf_index = host_leaf_best_split_info_buffer[6];
  *num_cat_threshold = host_leaf_best_split_info_buffer[7];
}

__global__ void AllocateCatVectorsKernel(
  CUDASplitInfo* cuda_split_infos, size_t len,
  const int max_num_categories_in_split,
  const bool has_categorical_feature,
  uint32_t* cat_threshold_vec,
  int* cat_threshold_real_vec) {
  const size_t i = threadIdx.x + blockIdx.x * blockDim.x;
  if (i < len) {
    if (has_categorical_feature) {
      cuda_split_infos[i].cat_threshold = cat_threshold_vec + i * max_num_categories_in_split;
      cuda_split_infos[i].cat_threshold_real = cat_threshold_real_vec + i * max_num_categories_in_split;
      cuda_split_infos[i].num_cat_threshold = 0;
    } else {
      cuda_split_infos[i].cat_threshold = nullptr;
      cuda_split_infos[i].cat_threshold_real = nullptr;
      cuda_split_infos[i].num_cat_threshold = 0;
    }
  }
}

void CUDABestSplitFinder::LaunchAllocateCatVectorsKernel(
  CUDASplitInfo* cuda_split_infos, uint32_t* cat_threshold_vec, int* cat_threshold_real_vec, size_t len) {
  const int num_blocks = (static_cast<int>(len) + NUM_THREADS_PER_BLOCK_BEST_SPLIT_FINDER - 1) / NUM_THREADS_PER_BLOCK_BEST_SPLIT_FINDER;
  AllocateCatVectorsKernel<<<num_blocks, NUM_THREADS_PER_BLOCK_BEST_SPLIT_FINDER>>>(
    cuda_split_infos, len, max_num_categories_in_split_, has_categorical_feature_, cat_threshold_vec, cat_threshold_real_vec);
}

__global__ void InitCUDARandomKernel(
  const int seed,
  const int num_tasks,
  CUDARandom* cuda_randoms) {
  const int task_index = static_cast<int>(threadIdx.x + blockIdx.x * blockDim.x);
  if (task_index < num_tasks) {
    cuda_randoms[task_index].SetSeed(seed + task_index);
  }
}

void CUDABestSplitFinder::LaunchInitCUDARandomKernel() {
  const int num_blocks = (static_cast<int>(cuda_randoms_.Size()) +
    NUM_THREADS_PER_BLOCK_BEST_SPLIT_FINDER - 1) / NUM_THREADS_PER_BLOCK_BEST_SPLIT_FINDER;
  InitCUDARandomKernel<<<num_blocks, NUM_THREADS_PER_BLOCK_BEST_SPLIT_FINDER>>>(extra_seed_,
    static_cast<int>(cuda_randoms_.Size()), cuda_randoms_.RawData());
}

}  // namespace LightGBM

#endif  // USE_CUDA || USE_ROCM
